E-newsletter

Welcome to the Samara e-newsletter. The e-newsletter is published three times a year in March, June and September, starting September 2021. It aims to share up-to-date news and stories from across the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) as well as share information of relevance to the partnership.

The e-newsletter sits alongside the annual print version of Samara, published in December. More information and past issues of the print edition can be found on the dedicated Samara print edition webpage.

If you have any feedback or would like to get in touch with the Samara team, please email samara@kew.org .

Issue 11: March 2025

In this issue we hear about field adventures in Australia and Mozambique. We travel to South Africa, Mozambique and the UK for stories from across the MSBP, whilst the species profile explores the work going on at BRIN in Indonesia on orchid seeds of Arundina graminifolia stored for 14 years. Our seed bank profile highlights the work of the Faustino Miranda Botanic Garden in Chiapas Mexico, and our question of the quarter looks at what's coming up on the MSB training calendar for 2025.

The flowering tip of a plant. Short spikey thin leaves cluster along the branch. The flowers have central dark red curled perianth and lighter pink elongated style protruding from the top of the perianth — *Grevillea batrachioides*, Australia. (Photo: Andrew Crawford).

Many large bunches of red berries growing on a shrub. Each bunch contains around 15-30 small berries, which are round and brightly red coloured. The leaves are a dark green with a glossy surface. — *Cotoneaster coriaceus*, South Africa. (Photo: John Ruter).

A long stalk hanging down from a plant ending in two pods. The pods are shiny green and are joined at the stem, but they angle out at different directions to each other looking like a moustache. — *Carvalhoa macrophylla*, Mozambique. (Photo: Atanásio Félix).

An orchid flower in bloom. The dorsal sepal and lateral petals long and elongated tapering to a point. They are white in colour. The labellum is rolled, with a dark purpley pink inner colour and a fluted edge. — *Arundina graminifolia*, Indonesia. (Photo: Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas).

Stories from the field and lab this issue explores efforts to conserve Australia's rarest plants and the collecting of forest seed in Mozambique.

From 2022 to 2024, the Australian Seed Bank Partnership, with generous support from the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, led the Critically Endangered Project to safeguard some of Australia’s most at-risk plant species. This initiative aimed to support the conservation of 10 Critically Endangered species across Western Australia and Tasmania.

Key partners included the Tasmanian Seed Conservation Centre, and both the Kings Park and Kensington branches of the Western Australian Seed Centre. Each organisation began with pre-collection field surveys to locate target species, assess population health, and determine the best time for seed collection. Collections were prioritised for species that were new to the Millennium Seed Bank and to improve the genetic representation of existing accessions. As a result, 92 seed collections were made for 15 Critically Endangered taxa, along with an additional 16 collections of six other listed species.

Germination trials were conducted on the collected seeds to ensure they could be successfully propagated. Through this work, the project established germination protocols for 12 Critically Endangered species, including innovative trials using alternative germination media at the Tasmanian Seed Conservation Centre. This research led to improved germination techniques for orchids such as the Golfers Leek-orchid (Prasophyllum incorrectum).

Beyond seed banking, the project supported restoration actions, helping reintroduce and bolster wild populations. This included the establishment of seed production areas and translocations for 10 Critically Endangered taxa. For example, in Western Australia, 61 seedlings of Grevillea batrachioides were planted to enhance an existing translocated population, while in Kings Park, cultivated seedlings of the Dunsborough Spider-orchid (Caladenia viridescens) contributed to vital pollination studies.

Multiple rows of plant pots each with white plant labels inside a glass house. Lanceolate green leaves are shooting up from the plant pots. — *Caladenia viridescens* seedlings in the Kings Park seed production area. (Photo: Belinda Davis).

The Critically Endangered Project surpassed its conservation targets, contributing to the conservation of 22 listed species, including 16 classified as Critically Endangered. The project also benefited from more than AUD $132,000 (£70,000) in in-kind support from its partners, a significant contribution that further amplified its impact. This initiative underscores the vital role of seed banking, restoration, and research in addressing biodiversity loss, while highlighting the power of long-term partnerships in securing the future of Australia’s most threatened plants. For more information about this project visit our project webpage.

Forest seed collection in the northwest region of Mozambique is led by two IIAM researchers, Atanásio Félix and Petrus Dique, who trained on an MSBP Seed Conservation Techniques (SCT) course held in Mozambique in November 2022. Our aim of making at least three collections of target species per day, involves a lot of commitment and dedication from each team member, as it involves long walks over the rivers, rocks and mountains that predominate in the region.

For example, in April and May 2024, the two researchers climbed Mount Mabu (Fig. 1), which forms part of the proposed Mulanje-Namuli-Ribáuè Plant Endemism Center. The area is characterised by the presence of extensive areas of intact rainforest, where they faced challenges due to the presence of several river sources and extensive areas of rocky forests (Fig. 2).

A shrub and forest covered foreground, with a forest covered mountain in the background — Figure 1: Mount Mabu. (Photo: Luciano Mariano, WWF).

Two people crossing a river flowing through a forested area at a rocky point while another person stands at the shore — Figure 2: Petrus Dique (front), Tomas Florêncio (middle) and Estevão Enriques (back) crossing the river towards Mount Mabu. (Photo: Atanásio Félix).

One of the species that was collected in the expedition was Carvalhoa macrophylla K.Schum. a species that occurs naturally in NW Mozambique and few other countries of Africa (Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia) in the Apocynaceae family. The fruit has value for local fauna diversity as a food plant. The plant is characterized by having white latex, simple and opposite leaves with entire margins, white to yellow flowers and paired fruits with curved pods shaped like buffalo horns (Fig. 3).

Two men crouching down on a tarp. Laid out in front of them are many open cotton seed collecting bags full of seeds — Figure 4: Petrus Dique (on the left) and Atanásio Félix (on the right), processing seeds. (Photo: Tomas Florê).

Processing the seed of Carvalhoa macrophylla is quite slow, as there is a sticky viscous liquid that surrounds the seed inside the fruit. To overcome this difficulty, the researchers used the following techniques:

Immersion of the mature fruits in a bowl of ambient temperature water;
Gently breaking the fruits (inside the bowl) with hands to avoid seed damage;
Drying the seeds in the shade;
Selecting good, mature seeds.

The team remains committed to increasing the number of seeds to be conserved in the IIAM and MSB seed banks, as few seeds were found in the first expedition due to the lack of uniformity in the physiological maturation of the fruits.

Across the MSBP articles this issue explore seed conservation training in Mozambique and the potential impact of Cotoneaster coriaceus on South Africa's flora. We also hear from two current MSB interns about the projects they're doing and their experiences working at the MSB.

In 2022, I attended the Seed Conservation Techniques training course delivered by RBG Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) and the Mozambique Institute of Agricultural Research (IIAM), held in Maputo, Mozambique. The training covered theory and practical laboratory sessions, and we also travelled to Ponta de Ouro for field sessions. It was through this training that I further developed my skills and became even more interested in working with seeds. In the past, my greatest interest was working with forest seeds, especially from trees and shrubs, but with the training provided by the MSBP, I began to work with other types of plants, such as herbs, vines, and grasses.

In 2024, the Seed Network team from the central zone of Mozambique travelled to the mountains of Serra Choa and Serra da Gorongosa. It was a huge challenge given the high altitudes and low temperatures. Nevertheless, it was possible to collect several target endemic, near endemic, and threatened species such as Tephrosia montana and Streptocarpus brachynema. The training we received empowered us to ensure the quality and viability of these seeds after collection.

In the past, when we collected seeds our seed conservation processes were not adequate due to a lack of knowledge. After processing, all the seed collected was previously kept in cold storage (-20°C to -25°C) in plastic bags and after a while they lost their viability. With the MSBP training, we learned that not all seeds should be kept in cold storage. Orthodox (desiccation tolerant) seeds can be dried and cold stored for long-term conservation, while recalcitrant (desiccation sensitive) seeds quickly lose their viability if dried and cold stored. Of course, it is essential to keep our seeds alive so they can be used in restoration programmes.

Two men working in a forested area. They are both looking down and concentrating on something in front of them on a branch. — Harvesting and conservation of different types of seeds. (Photos: X. Sitivene João).

Ten bags of seeds laid out on a floor. The bags are transparent plastic and have white labels to indicate what is contained within. Each bags contains many seeds of the same species and as the bags are laid out next to one another, the variety of seed size, shape and colour is clear. — Harvesting and conservation of different types of seeds. (Photos: X. Sitivene João).

Cotoneaster coriaceus, an evergreen shrub belonging to the rose family (Rosaceae), is under surveillance in South Africa due to its invasive potential (SANBI, 2024). Originating from China, this shrub can grow up to 3 metres tall and poses significant ecological threats to indigenous flora (Henderson, 2001).

This hardy shrub features round stems covered in yellow hairs when young, which become smooth and take on a grey-brown or grey-purple hue with age. Its oval-shaped leaves, 20–45 mm long and 12–28 mm wide, are leathery with indented veins, growing alternately on hairy stalks (Jones, 2015). In spring, Cotoneaster coriaceus produces clusters of small white flowers, which later develop into small, egg-shaped fruits that transition from green to a striking bright red when ripe. Each fruit contains two hard seeds, ensuring its prolific reproduction.

Cotoneaster coriaceus thrives in disturbed environments such as roadsides, railway lines, riparian zones, and forest edges (SANBI, 2024). What makes this species particularly concerning is its ability to spread rapidly and compete with native vegetation. As it takes over natural habitats, it alters ecosystem functioning, disrupting the delicate balance of biodiversity (Richardson & Rejmánek, 2011).

The shrub's spread is aided by birds and small mammals, which consume its bright red berries and inadvertently disperse the seeds through their droppings. This efficient method of propagation allows Cotoneaster coriaceus to colonise vast areas quickly, outcompeting local plant species and compromising the health of natural ecosystems (Henderson, 2001).

South Africa has placed Cotoneaster coriaceus under surveillance to monitor its spread and mitigate its impact on the environment (SANBI, 2024). Early intervention is crucial to prevent further harm to native ecosystems. Raising awareness about invasive species like Cotoneaster coriaceus is essential in preserving South Africa’s rich biodiversity (Richardson & Rejmánek, 2011).

A single panicle of red berries hanging from a branch surrounded by simple dark green grey leaves — *Cotoneaster coriaceus*. (Photo: John Ruter).

References

Henderson, L. (2001) Alien Weeds and Invasive Plants. Pretoria: Agricultural Research Council.
Jones, D. (2015) Shrubs and Trees in Temperate Regions. New York: Timber Press.
Richardson, D.M. & Rejmánek, M. (2011) Trees and shrubs as invasive alien species - a global review. Diversity and Distributions. 17: 788-809.
SANBI. (2024) Cotoneaster coriaceus. South African National Biodiversity Institute.

When I pictured a scientist, I imagined lab coats, test tubes, and microscopes. To a certain extent, that image is still what comes first to my mind. As an aspiring computer scientist, the difference between my work and my internal image of a typical scientist has always made me question if what I was doing was really ‘science’. However, over the last 6 months as part of the Bloomberg Philanthropies supported 'Exploring machine learning as a tool to improve the accuracy and speed of orchid viability testing' project team, my internal definition of a scientist has changed and grown past the laboratory and into every corner of the Millennium Seed Bank.

The seeds

As it is in the essence of a seed bank to store seeds for conservation, research, and restoration purposes, it is crucial to be able to reliably determine the viability of a collection of seeds. The primary method of calculating epiphytic orchid seed viability is to use tetrazolium chloride (TZ) as a staining agent to highlight the living tissues of a viable seed. Known as a TZ test, the procedure requires the number of bright red orchid seeds to be counted under a microscope and compared to the total number of seeds upon which a viability ratio can be estimated. The counting process is tedious and time-consuming, whilst also being subjective in that the interpretation of viability depends entirely on the personal judgement of the tester on how red a seed must be to be considered viable.

A white background with about 60 seeds on it. The seeds have all been outlined in different colours. Those seeds with a dark red coloured embryo have been outlined in red and those with a lighter red to orange embryo colour have been outlined in blue. The seeds which don't appear to have any embryo in them have been outlined in black — Figure 1b: The annotations given by the model.

The scientists

The project looks to tackle the problems presented by TZ tests by training an AI model to automatically count and classify the stained orchid seeds in an image as viable, non-viable, or empty (without an embryo). We first had to take microscopic images of stained orchid seeds, then have the images annotated, before building and evaluating a machine learning model to classify the seeds.

Joel is sitting in front of a microscope and smiling. He is wearing a lab coat. — Joel Akio Tamura experiencing imaging of microscopic orchid seeds after TZ staining. (Photo: Josh Wheeley).

This multidisciplinary approach of the project required a team with diverse backgrounds and expertise in their respective parts of the project. While some of our team wore lab coats to conduct the TZ tests and use microscopes to take the orchid seed images, others spent their time clicking away at a never-ending sea of seed images or writing code to calculate how much the annotators agreed on the viability of orchid seeds. Being part of the team in which each member contributed their own strengths and together overcame any issues has given me confidence in my own knowledge of machine learning whilst allowing me to accept my lack of botanical knowledge. Not only has this been empowering, but it has also given way to a newfound curiosity for areas outside my field.

When I first started at the MSB, I thought that there would be a barrier created by my field of ‘science’ being different from that of everyone else. This couldn’t have been further from the truth. Coding and data analysis is useful to everyone, and my expertise in it has been met with nothing but interest and encouragement. Ironically, after getting to wear a lab coat for the first time since school, I’ve learnt that not all scientists have to wear lab coats and that not all scientists have to be using test tubes or microscopes. I've learnt that being a scientist means having an inquisitive, curious mind, and that I’m proud to be a part of one big scientist that is the MSB.

In the UN Decade on Restoration, it is more important than ever to bring our attention to restoring degraded ecosystems, with as much as 25% of the world’s land area being classed as degraded (Dubois, 2011). Unfortunately, inadequate native seed supply is a major bottleneck hindering large scale ecosystem restoration (Léon-Lobos et al., 2020). It has been estimated that approximately 2 to 17 trillion seeds are needed to achieve the Bonn Challenge goal of restoring 350Mha by 2030 (Chau et al., 2022). Building on this work, a global-scale, intern-led project attempts to:

Quantify available and appropriate land area for native species restoration.
Define what and how many native species and seeds to plant.
Calculate how many seeds and seedlings are currently available and suitable for use.
Deduce what further steps would need to be taken to resolve this bottleneck of seed supply.

Analysing globally available and appropriate land for restoration involves quantifying both what lands have been pledged to date for restoration projects and the restoration potential of that land. Firstly, many agreements and initiatives for restoration exist already (Paris Agreement, Bonn Challenge, Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, etc.) and attempts have been made to quantify all of these. Based on the most recent collation attempt (Sewell et al., 2020a), a rough estimate of 237Mha of land has been pledged specifically for the restoration of forests, wetlands, and protected areas. However, calculating these commitments on a global scale is impractical due to, for example, potential overlaps between multiple pledges within the same country, the use of varying units to define commitments (hectares, trees planted, % of degraded land, etc.) and differing ideas on the definition of ‘restoration’ (Sewell et al., 2020b); some parties deem plantations and afforestation of grasslands to be appropriate habitat/woodland restoration, both of which have faced significant criticism (Lewis et al., 2019b; Bond et al., 2019; Veldman et al., 2019). Additionally, besides this 2020 dataset, there does not appear to be very much recently published data on restoration commitments in general.

Attempts have been made to calculate restoration potential on a global scale to deduce the highest priority land for restoration, considering climate change mitigation (Bastin et al., 2019), biome, biodiversity, and cost minimization (Strassburg et al., 2020). However, there are a myriad of factors left to consider, such as future climate and land use projections (Lewis et al., 2019a; Gimona et al., 2012; Feeley & Silman, 2010), natural regeneration (Williams et al., 2024), the land of marginalised/indigenous people (Fleischmann et al., 2022), habitat fragmentation (Travers et al., 2021; Fischer et al., 2024) and albedo effect (Bright et al., 2015) among many others. Some of these factors are quantifiable on a macroecological scale (McGill, 2019) and certain global trends in restoration potential can be deduced, such as how restoration efforts in the tropics and sub-tropics are the most effective for climate mitigation specifically. This is due to faster growing trees, cheaper and more readily available land (Minnemeyer et al., 2011), and minimal effect on albedo, where at high latitudes, vegetation will often obscure snow with a high reflectivity of solar energy (Bright et al., 2015; Lewis et al., 2019).

However, when considering socio-economic factors (such as indigenous land, social unrest, and even what pledges governments commit towards restoration), it would be more effective to consider their contribution to restoration potential on a more local scale. Currently, there is no single model that can effectively consider these factors on a global scale and doing as such would be greatly detrimental to marginalized people (Strassburg et al., 2022). Moving forward, UN FAO are currently developing a dashboard for Target 2 of the Kunming-Montreal Biodiversity Framework (Restore 30% of all degraded ecosystems) which will greatly help in overcoming the shortage of commitment data. Additionally, the upcoming release of Restor for Enterprise (a digital platform and toolkit for restoration project monitoring and management) will enable a more efficient analysis of what species are appropriate to plant where, which will help to provide a more cohesive and region-specific method for calculating seed demand.

To calculate the seed supply that already exists, an analysis on 31 African seed banks with potential suitability for restoration (from a seed bank database created by Chau et al., 2022) has been started. The first step for this analysis has been applied to four seed centres, quantifying what species available in their catalogue are native, non-native, or of an unknown nativeness (Fig. 1). However, none of these four centres include publicly available data on the number of accessions and seed quantities per species. However, there is another gene bank (SB5) that does contain information on accessions. Initial analysis suggests that while only 39% of species covered by one of the seed banks catalogues are native to the country, 56% of their overall accessions are native (Fig. 2). This shows the potential for native seed banks to include vital information on the species and accessions they hold. In addition, there are tensions between the primary focus of some seed banks which are for food and agriculture rather than for habitat restoration.

A series of pie charts representing data from four seed banks. Seed Bank 1 has a total of 213 species on the catalogue with 130 native and 83 non-native. Seed Bank 2 has 163 species in the catalogue, 109 native, 53 non-native and 1 unknown. For seed bank 3 there are 167 species present of which 57 are native, 102 are non-native and 8 are unknown. Seed bank 4 has 32 species, of which 22 are native, 9 are non-native and 1 in unknown. — Figure 1: Numbers of native and non-native seeds present in the catalogues of seed banks.

Two pie charts. Pie chart A shows 32 native species are present in seed bank 5 whilst 51 non-native species are represented in seed bank 5. Pie chart B shows that 4253 of the seed bank 5 accessions are from native species, whilst 3359 of the accessions at the seed bank are of non-native species. — Figure 2: Proportions of native and non-native a) species present and b) accessions present in SB5.

The greatest limiting factor for this research appears to be data accessibility in terms of what seeds are publicly available (especially information on the quality, quantity, and provenance of these seeds). The next step of the project is to analyse the information available on the websites of all African native seed banks and assess their potential to provide both the seeds and the information required to deliver high quality ecosystem restoration across Africa (in other words, to be effective ‘seed hubs’ for restoration). Ideally, the results of this study will help to guide future improvements and highlight exemplary restoration seed custodians. It is important to note that a considerable proportion of seed supply also derives from local nurseries, farms and communities with no online presence, and hence, the full extent of global seed supply is currently unquantifiable. SeedPOD, an open access digital platform for seed supply in restoration, is currently in development at the Millennium Seed Bank, Kew and will attempt to address this problem by providing small-scale seed custodians with a digital presence. Despite all the hurdles left to overcome, this project will hopefully start addressing and quantifying this global bottleneck and provide a backbone for future research ideas and practical inspiration for habitat restoration.

References

Bastin, J., Finegold, Y., Garcia, C., Mollicone, D., Rezende, M., Routh, D., Zohner, C. & Crowther, T. (2019) The global tree restoration potential. Science. 365: 76-79.
Bond, W., Stevens, W., Midgley, G. & Lehmann, C. (2019) The Trouble with Trees: Afforestation Plans for Africa. Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 34: 963-965.
Bright, R., Zhao, K., Jackson, R. & Cherubini, F. (2015) Quantifying surface albedo and other direct biogeophysical climate forcings of forestry activities. Global Change Biology. 21: 3246-3266.
Chau, M., Angelova, D., Di Sacco, A., Wagner, J., Castillo-Díaz, D., Meyer, V. & Goodale, U. (2022) The Global Seed Bank Index – Thousands of Seed Banks Are Needed to Address Seed Supply Shortages in Ecosystem Restoration. Terraformation.
Dubois, O. (2011) The state of the world’s land and water resources for food and agriculture: managing systems at risk. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Routledge.
Feeley, K. & Silman, M. (2010) Biotic attrition from tropical forests correcting for truncated temperature niches. Global Change Biology. 16: 1830-1836.
Fischer, R., Taubert, F., Müller, M., Groeneveld, J., Lehmann, S., Wiegand, R. & Huth, A. (2024) Accelerated forest fragmentation leads to critical increase in tropical forest edge area. Science Advances. 7: eabg7012.
Fleischman, F., Coleman, E., Fischer, H., Kashwan, P., Pfeifer, M., Ramprasad, V., Rodriguez Solorzano, C. & Veldman, J. (2022) Restoration prioritization must be informed by marginalized people. Nature. 607: E5-E6.
Gimona, A., Poggio, L., Brown, I. & Castellazzi, M. (2012) Woodland networks in a changing climate: Threats from land use change. Biological Conservation. 149: 93-102.
Govaerts, R., Nic Lughadha, E., Black, N., Turner, R. & Paton, A. (2021) The World Checklist of Vascular Plants, a continuously updated resource for exploring global plant diversity. Scientific Data. 8: 215.
Léon-Lobos, P., Bustamante-Sánchez, M., Nelson, C., Alarcón, D., Hasbún, R., Way, M., Pritchard, H. & Armesto, J. (2020) Lack of adequate seed supply is a major bottleneck for effective ecosystem restoration in Chile: friendly amendment to Bannister et al. (2018). Restoration Ecology. 28: 277-281.
Lewis, S., Mitchard, E., Prentice, C., Maslin, M. & Poulter, B. (2019a) Comment on “The global tree restoration potential”. Science. 366: eaaz0388.
Lewis, S., Wheeler, C., Mitchard, E. & Koch, A. (2019b) Restoring natural forests is the best way to remove atmospheric carbon. Nature. 568: 25-28.
McGill, B. (2019) The what, how and why of doing macroecology. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 28 6-17.
Minnemeyer, S., Laestadius, L., Sizer, N., Saint-Laurent, C. & Potapov, P. (2011) Bonn Challenge: A World of Opportunity. World Resource Institute.
Sewell, A., van der Esch, S. & Löwenhardt, H. (2020a) Goals and Commitments for the Restoration Decade: A global overview of countries’ restoration commitments under the Rio Conventions and other pledges. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague.
Sewell, A., van der Esch, S. & L&ounml;wenhardt, H. (2020b) Technical note on methodology for the global restoration commitments database. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague.
Strassburg, B., Iribarrem, A., Beyer, H., Cordeiro, C., Crouzeilles, R., Jakovac, C., Braga Junqueira, A., Lacerda, E., Latawiec, A., Balmford, A., Brooks, T., Butchart, S., Chazdon, R., Erb, K., Brancalion, P., Buchanan, G., Cooper, D., Díaz, S., Donald, P., Kapos, V., Leclère, D., Miles, L., Obersteiner, M., Plutzar, C., Scaramuzza, C., Scarano, F. & Visconti, P. (2020) Global priority areas for ecosystem restoration. Nature. 586: 724-729.
Strassburg, B., Iribarrem, A., Beyer, H., Cordeiro, C., Crouzeilles, R., Jakovac, C., Braga Junqueira, A., Lacerda, E., Latawiec, A., Balmford, A., Brooks, T., Butchart, S., Chazdon, R., Erb, K., Brancalion, P., Buchanan, G., Cooper, D., Díaz, S., Donald, P., Kapos, V., Leclère, D., Miles, L., Obersteiner, M., Plutzar, C., Scaramuzza, C., Scarano, F. & Visconti, P. (2022) Reply to: Restoration prioritization must be informed by marginalized people. Nature. 607: E7-E9.
Travers, E., Härdtle, W. & Matthies, D. (2021) Corridors as a tool for linking habitats – Shortcomings and perspectives for plant conservation. Journal for Nature Conservation. 60: 125974.
Veldman, J., Overbeck, G., Negreiros, D., Mahy, G., Le Stradic, S., Fernandes, G., Durigan, G., Buisson, E., Putz, F. & Bond, W. (2015) Where tree planting and forest expansion are bad for biodiversity and ecosystem services. BioScience. 65: 1011-1018.
Williams, B., Beyer, H., Fagan, M., Chazdon, R., Schmoeller, M., Sprenkle-Hyppolite, S., Griscom, B., Watson, J., Tedesco, A., Gonzalez-Roglich, M., Daldegan, G., Bodin, B., Celentano, D., Wilson, S., Rhodes, J., Alexandre, N., Kim, D., Bastos, D. & Crouzeilles, R. (2024) Global potential for natural regeneration in deforested tropical regions. Nature. 636: 131-137.

Conservation of Arundina graminifolia (D.Don) Hochr. in Bogor Botanic Gardens, Indonesia by Elizabeth Handini, Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas & Dian Latifah (Research Center of Applied Botany, National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia)

Synonyms

Arundina affinis Griff. (1851)
Arundina bambusifolia [Roxb.] Lindley (1831)
Arundina cantleyi Hook.f. (1890)
Arundina celebica Schltr. (1911)
Arundina chinensis Blume (1825)
Arundina densa Lindley (1842)
Arundina densiflora Hook.f. (1890)

Introduction

Arundina graminifolia is a remarkable orchid species celebrated for its beauty, adaptability, medicinal properties and ecological contributions. A terrestrial orchid, Arundina graminifolia is commonly known as the bamboo orchid due to its slender, bamboo-like stems and elongated leaves resembling those of bamboo plants. Flowering occurs throughout the year, with each flower opening sequentially, one at a time.

Whether admired in a garden or growing wild in its native habitats, the bamboo orchid captivates botanists, horticulturists, and nature enthusiasts alike. In certain cultures, this orchid symbolizes elegance and resilience due to its enduring beauty and adaptability. In tropical countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand, where Arundina graminifolia is naturally found, orchids are commonly used in cultural ceremonies and floral decorations as well as being used in traditional medicine. The bamboo orchid's year-round blooming and robust nature may resonate with themes of renewal and enduring beauty in local traditions.

Morphological Characteristics

The plant typically grows to heights of 1–2 metres to form large clumps, depending on environmental conditions. Its lanceolate leaves are arranged alternately along the stem, giving it a graceful, grass-like appearance.

The flowers are mildly scented, typically 5-10 cm in diameter, are borne on terminal racemes and are characterized by their vivid purple to pink petals and a contrasting white lip marked with purple streaks. The blooming period extends throughout the year, with peak flowering occurring in the rainy season, making it a favourite among orchid enthusiasts. The flowers found in Celebes are typically larger and display bright purple, compared with the species found in Sumatra and Kalimantan (Fig. 1a-c).

An orcid flower in bloom. The dorsal sepal and two lateral petals are a longer than they are wide tapering to a point, they are very light pink. The labellum is curled into a column with a fushia pink edge which is recurved. At the bottom of the labellum are two spikes facing downwards. — Figure 1a. The flowers of *Arundina graminifolia* from Celebes. (Photos: Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas).

An orchid flower in bloom. The dorsal sepal and two lateral petals taper to a point and are slightly longer than they are wide. They are very light pink in colour. The labellum is rolled into an overlapping tube, with the edges fluted and fushia pink. — Figure 1a. The flowers of *Arundina graminifolia* from Celebes. (Photos: Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas).

An orchid flower in bloom. The two lateral petals are wider than they are long, tapering into a point. In contrast the dorsal sepal is the same length but much narrower. They are very pale pink in colour with a yellow tinge. The labellum is rolled but the lip has a divide in the bottom. The edges are fluted and the colour is much yellower in the centre, with the edge of the labellum only tinged fushia. Overal the flower is smaller than those from Celebes. — Figure 1b. The flowers of *Arundina graminifolia* from Sumatra. (Photos: Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas).

An orchid flower in bloom. The two lateral petals are slightly recurved and taper to a point, the dorsal sepal is much narrower than the two lateral sepasls. The two lateral sepals are visible and are shorter and recurved. The entire flower is a very pale wink with only a slight pink tinge to the tip of the labellum. — Figure 1b. The flowers of *Arundina graminifolia* from Sumatra. (Photos: Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas).

An orchid flower in bloom. Compared to the flowers from Celebes and Sumatra, the dorsal sepal and lateral petals are much purer white with little pink tinges. The shapes are more similar to those of the Sumatra flowers with the lateral petals being wider than they are long and also much wider than the dorsal sepal. The labellum is more similar to the Celebes flower rolled with a darker purpley pink colour and a fluted edge. The tip is split in two. — Figure 1c. The flowers of *Arundina graminifolia* from Kalimantan. (Photos: Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas).

An orchid flower in bloom. Compared to the flowers from Celebes and Sumatra, this flower is more similar to those from Celebes, with the dorsal sepal and lateral petals longers and more elongated but still tapering to a point. They are a purer white. The labellum is more similar to the Celebes flower, rolled, with a dark purpley pink inner colour and a fluted edge. — Figure 1c. The flowers of *Arundina graminifolia* from Kalimantan. (Photos: Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas).

Habitat and Distribution

Arundina graminifolia thrives in open, sunny locations, often in grasslands, along roadsides, or on the edges of forests. It prefers well-drained, acidic soils and is commonly found at elevations ranging from 300 - 1,500 metres. This orchid is well-adapted to disturbed habitats, which contributes to its wide distribution and resilience.

It is native to Southeast Asia, widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions, including countries like India, China, Malaysia, and Indonesia, and extending to the Pacific islands. Its adaptability to diverse environments has made it a popular species for both ornamental purposes and ecological restoration projects. This striking orchid is cherished for its aesthetic appeal and ecological importance, making it a subject of interest for both horticulturists and conservationists.

Ecological Importance

Arundina graminifolia plays a crucial role within the ecosystem. Its flowers attract a variety of pollinators, including bees or butterflies, contributing to the biodiversity of its habitat. Apart from its ornamental value, A. graminifolia plays a role in ecological restoration as the plant helps stabilize soils in degraded areas, preventing erosion. Its ability to stabilize soil and thrive in degraded habitats makes it a valuable species for revegetation projects.

Seed studies and conservation at Bogor Botanic Garden

Seed propagation is challenging for orchids due to their tiny, dust-like seeds that lack an endosperm. Arundina graminifolia seeds require symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi to germinate naturally. In controlled settings, this method often involves asymbiotic seed germination on nutrient-rich media.

Bogor Botanic Gardens have collections of A. graminifolia plants from Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Celebes growing in the greenhouse. Besides conserving the plants, the conservation of A. graminifolia has been carried out through conventional seed storage at -20°C in seed banks. The moisture content of the seeds is reduced by storing the seeds after harvest for 3-5 days using a desiccant (RH around 30-50%). Seeds of A. graminifolia have been stored for over 16 years at Bogor Botanic Gardens and still exhibit high viability (84%).

In seed viability tests, A. graminifolia seeds successfully germinated on all four media tested: modified Vacin and Went (VW), modified Knudson C (KC), Hyponex leaf fertilizer media, and KC medium supplemented with micronutrients without organics (KCA). However, after 15 years of seed storage at -20°C, viability tests were conducted only on modified KC medium enriched with organic additives (coconut water and bean sprout extract), the best-performing medium for germination.

Table 1: Seed germination on various media and different times of storage. (Photos: Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas & Elizabeth Handini).
Year of storage	Media
Year of storage	VW	KCA	KC	Hyponex
6^th
8^th
10^th
14^th

This article is available in both english and spanish.

Este artículo está disponible en inglés y español.

By Silvia Bacci (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)

The Faustino Miranda Botanical Garden (JBFM) began activities in 1949 with the main objectives of conserving, studying, and sharing knowledge about the native flora of the state of Chiapas, Mexico.

In April 1997, the initiative to build a seed bank within the garden was presented to the state government with the aim of safeguarding native germplasm and using it for ecological restoration.

The seed bank is managed by the Ministry of the Environment and Natural History (SEMAHN) and supported by the adjacent Botanical Museum and CHIP herbarium. Projects focus on conservation and propagation of native forest germplasm for restoration, conservation and study of useful native plants, production of herbal products, and floristic research.

The seeds of 159 species (99 genera and 56 families) are stored in the bank and seedlings of approximately 70 native tree species are produced and donated to municipalities, civil society organisations, institutions, and landowners.

A large room with many metal shelves. The shelves are filled with bags of seeds. — SEMAHN seed bank cold room. (Photo: Silvia Bacci).

A tub filed with orangy brown seeds. There is a label written in spanish which reads Caobilla Swietenia humilis. Familia: Meliaceae. Uso: Maderable y medicinal. Descripción: Árbol caducifolia, de 35 hasta 70 m de altura con un diámetro de 1 a hasta 3.5 m, se distribuye desde el sur de Sinaloa hasta Chiapas. El árbol comienza a florécer cuando tiene entre 15 y 25 años. Empleado para la fabricación de muebies finos, gabinetes, cajas de piano, instrumentos musicales y cientificos, modelaje industrial, bioques de grabado, tallas, esculturas, chapa y madera terciada, mangos de herramienta, artículos torneados, y decoración de interiores. Las semillas son usadas medicinalmente y para elaborar jabón y para dar brillo al pelo. — Caobilla seeds. (Photo: Silvia Bacci).

The species donated are both useful and fulfil ecosystem functions (see Table 1). The seeds collected by the JBFM seed bank team come from forests and other natural ecosystems that are accessed through formal consents with landowners and third parties. Each year, an average of 130 kg of seeds are donated to nurseries and research institutions (e.g., INECOL) to support the production of native plants.

Table 1: Common name, scientific names and uses of useful tree species on interest for SEMAHN in Chiapas, which are also propagated at the JBFM.
Common name	Scientific name	Uses
Tempisque	Sideroxylon capiri	Ceremonial, poultry fodder, timber
Cedro	Cedrela odorata	Timber
Moju	Brosimum alicastrum	Food, fodder, timber
Primavera	Roseodendron donnell-smithii	Ornamental, timber
Morro	Crescentia cujete, C. alata	Craft use, medicene
Roble serrano	Handroanthus impetiginosus	Ornamental, timber
Maluco	Genipa americana	Food, dye, timber
Canelo	Calycophyllum candidissimum	ceremonial, melliferous, timber
Sospó	Pseudobombax ellipticum	Craft use, ornamental
Pimienta	Pimenta dioica	Food, medicene
Palo marimba	Platymiscium dimorphandrum	Craft use. ceremonial, timber
Guapinol	Hymenaea courbaril	Food, timber
Papausa	Annona macroprophyllata	Food
Cuchunuc	Gliricidia sepium	Food, environmental (live fence and shade), insecticide, medicinal
Zapote amarillo	Lucuma campechiana	Food
Guanabana	Annona muricata	Food, medicinal
Chicozapote	Manilkara zapota	Food, industrial (chewing gum)

The JBFM seed bank is beginning a collaboration with the seed bank of the Iztacala Faculty of Higher Studies of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (FES-I UNAM), one of the most efficient seed conservation facilities in Latin America: this alliance is going to facilitate and support the SEMAHN team’s seed collections in Chiapas. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew is also about to formally start a collaboration with SEMAHN for the conservation of Chiapas forests. The JBFM is also part of the network of Orthodox Seed Conservation Centre and the Subcommittee on Agricultural Genetic Resources, coordinated by the National Seed Inspection and Certification Service (SNICS).

A green mesh shade outside covering a large area of plug plant trays. The trays are in rows, with the central set of rows being full of small plants — SEMAHN nursery. (Photo: Silvia Bacci).

SEMAHN has contacts with rural communities across the state and organizes very important activities such as community assemblies which inform people about conservation projects. This enables them to participate in decision-making, training, and workshops on topics such as natural resource management, forest restoration, climate change, and waste management.

Cooperation between SEMAHN and Indigenous Peoples has led to very positive results, especially thanks to Management Programs and Community-based Forest Enterprises instituted between 2021 and 2024 through the Undersecretary of Forestry Development and Botanical Gardens. Together, through these programs, SEMAHN and Indigenous communities have implemented projects resulting in:

Implementation of Payments for Environmental Services (PES)
Strengthening of traditional agroforestry systems
Protection of sacred natural sites
Creation of biological corridors and Protected Natural Areas (PNAs)
Establishment of community nurseries for habitat restoration

A particularly successful example of this cooperation is the Environmental Services in the Lacandon Jungle Project which since 2013 has made it possible to conserve a total of 38,939.99 hectares of evergreen forest in collaboration with the National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR) and the Lacandon communities.

Silvia Bacci (Real Jardín Botánico de Kew)

El Jardín Botánico Faustino Miranda (JBFM) inició actividades en 1949 con el objetivo principal de conservar, estudiar y compartir el conocimiento sobre la flora autóctona del estado de Chiapas, México.

En abril de 1997 se presentó al gobierno del estado la iniciativa de construir un banco de semillas dentro del jardín con el objetivo de salvaguardar el germoplasma nativo y utilizarlo para la restauración ecológica.

El banco de semillas es administrado por la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente e Historia Natural (SEMAHN) y cuenta con el apoyo del Museo Botánico y el herbario CHIP.

Los proyectos se centran en la conservación y el estudio del germoplasma de los bosques nativos, así como de su propagación para la restauración ecológica. Existen también proyectos de investigacién sobre especies útiles, las cuales son propagadas e incluso usadas para obtener productos herbolarios.

Las semillas de 159 especies (99 géneros y 56 familias) se almacenan en el banco y las plántulas de aproximadamente 70 especies de árboles nativos se producen y donan a municipios, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, instituciones y propietarios de tierras.

Un grande cuarto con estantes de metal. Los estantes están llenos de bolsas con semillas — El cuarto frío de SEMAHN. (Photo: Silvia Bacci).

Un contenedor rellenado de semillas de color castaño-anaranjado. Hay una etiqueta que dice Caobilla Swietenia humilis. Familia: Meliaceae. Uso: Maderable y medicinal. Descripción: Árbol caducifolia, de 35 hasta 70 m de altura con un diámetro de 1 a hasta 3.5 m, se distribuye desde el sur de Sinaloa hasta Chiapas. El árbol comienza a florécer cuando tiene entre 15 y 25 años. Empleado para la fabricación de muebies finos, gabinetes, cajas de piano, instrumentos musicales y cientificos, modelaje industrial, bioques de grabado, tallas, esculturas, chapa y madera terciada, mangos de herramienta, artículos torneados, y decoración de interiores. Las semillas son usadas medicinalmente y para elaborar jabón y para dar brillo al pelo. — Caobilla seeds. (Photo: Silvia Bacci).

Las especies donadas tienen generalmente usos humanos y cumplen funciones ecosistémicas (véase la Tabla 1). Las semillas recolectadas por el equipo del banco de semillas JBFM provienen de bosques y otros ecosistemas naturales a los que se accede a través de consentimientos formales con los propietarios de las tierras y terceros. Cada año, un promedio de 130 kg de semillas son donadas a viveros e instituciones de investigación (por ejemplo, INECOL) para apoyar la producción de plantas nativas.

Tabla 1. Nombre común, nombre científico y usos de especies arbóreas útiles de interés para el SEMAHN en Chiapas, que también se propagan en la JBFM.
Nombre común	Nombre científico	Usos
Tempisque	Sideroxylon capiri	Ceremonial, forraje para aves de corral, madera
Cedro	Cedrela odorata	Madera
Moju	Brosimum alicastrum	Alimentos, forraje, madera
Primavera	Roseodendron donnell-smithii	Ornamentales, madera
Morro	Crescentia cujete, C. alata	Uso artesanal, medicina
Roble serrano	Handroanthus impetiginosus	Ornamentales, madera
Maluco	Genipa americana	Alimentos, tintes, madera
Canelo	Calycophyllum candidissimum	Ceremonial, melífero, madera
Sospó	Pseudobombax ellipticum	Uso artesanal, ornamental
Pimienta	Pimenta dioica	Alimentos, medicinas
Palo marimba	Platymiscium dimorphandrum	Uso artesanal, ceremonial, madera
Guapinol	Hymenaea courbaril	Alimentos, madera
Papausa	Annona macroprophyllata	Víveres
Cuchunuc	Gliricidia sepium	Alimentos, ambientales (cerca viva y sombra), insecticidas, medicinales
Zapote amarillo	Lucuma campechiana	Víveres
Guanabana	Annona muricata	Alimentos, medicinales
Chicozapote	Manilkara zapota	Alimentos industriales (goma de mascar)

El banco de semillas JBFM está empezando una colaboración con el banco de semillas de la Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (FES-I UNAM), uno de los principales bancos de semillas de Latinoamérica: esta alianza va a apoyar la recolecta de semillas nativas de Chiapas y la investigación sobre su ecología. El Real Jardín Botánico de Kew también está a punto de iniciar formalmente una colaboración con SEMAHN para ofrecer asesoría y fortalecer la conservación y restauración de los bosques de Chiapas.

Una malla verde que da sombra a una área extensa con bandejas de plántulas. Las bandejas están organizadas en filas, con las filas centrales llenas de plántulas — Vivero de SEMAHN. (Photo: Silvia Bacci).

Adicionalmente, el JBFM también forma parte de la red del Centro Ortodoxo de Conservación de Semillas y del Subcomité de Recursos Genéticos Agrícolas, coordinado por el Servicio Nacional de Inspección y Certificación de Semillas (SNICS).

SEMAHN tiene contactos con comunidades rurales de todo el estado y organiza actividades muy importantes, como asambleas comunitarias que informan a las personas sobre proyectos de conservación. Esto les permite participar en la toma de decisiones, capacitaciones y talleres sobre temas como la gestión de recursos naturales, la restauración forestal, el cambio climático y la gestión de residuos.

Hay una alianza de cooperación entre la SEMAHN y los pueblos indígenas que ha sido muy positiva, especialmente gracias a los Programas de Manejo y Emprendimientos Forestales Comunitarios instituidos entre 2021 y 2024 a través de la Subsecretaría de Desarrollo Forestal y Jardín Botánico. Juntos, a través de estos programas, la SEMAHN y las comunidades indígenas han implementado proyectos que han resultado en:

Implementación de Pagos por Servicios Ambientales (PSA).
Fortalecimiento de los sistemas agroforestales tradicionales.
Protección de los sitios naturales sagrados.
Creación de corredores biológicos y Áreas Naturales Protegidas (ANP).
Establecimiento de viveros comunitarios para la restauración de hábitats.

Un ejemplo particularmente exitoso de esta cooperación es el Proyecto Servicios Ambientales en la Selva Lacandona, que desde 2013 ha permitido conservar un total de 38.939,99 hectáreas de bosque perennifolio en colaboración con la Comisión Nacional Forestal (CONAFOR) y las comunidades lacandonas.

What's coming up in the 2025 MSB training calendar?

Thanks to the generous funding from the Garfield Weston Foundation, as part of the Global Tree Seed Bank: Unlocked programme, this year has already got off to a busy start for training at the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB).

In February, we welcomed seven participants to the MSB from as far away as Fiji and South Africa and as close as Lincolnshire and Cheshire (Fig. 1) for a Technical Attachment at the MSB. This one week course covers all practical aspects of the post collection seed conservation workflow.

7 people stood in front of a vault door. They are all wearing white lab coats and smiling. — Figure 1: Participants of the technical attachment at the MSB in February 2025 in front of the seed vault. (Photo: Charlotte Lawrence).

Another technical attachment is already planned for July, with participants focusing on identifying storage behaviour and germination conditions for species with unknown seed characteristics.

If you would be interested in joining us for training this year, there are two more opportunities to express interest in training. For November, we are planning the second course in plant cryopreservation, which, similar to when it was first offered in 2023, will bring together Kew lecturers and external experts, to provide theory and practical training in cryopreservation techniques. The course will take place from 3^rd to 14^th of November at the MSB with applicants chosen after a deadline on the 15^th of August.

For our flagship Seed Conservation Techniques course (SCT), the dates have been moved to October (13^th to 24^th), coinciding with the celebrations of the 25^th MSB anniversary. The course will be offered fully online this year with places decided at the end of July.

To express interest in either training course, to receive further course information, or for any other training related questions please email MSBtraining@kew.org.

Recent publications from across the MSBP:

Carta, A., Mattana, E., Ensslin, A., Godefroid, S. & Molina-Venegas, R. (2025) Plant evolutionary history is largely underrepresented in European seed banks. New Phytologist. 246: 797-806. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.70000
Flores-Ortiz, C.M., Davila, P., Rodríguez-Arévalo, I., Manson, R.H., Toledo-Garibaldi, M., Cabrera-Santos, D., Salguero, M.A., Vázquez, F.G., Cobos-Silva, J., Gianella, M., Bell, E., Way, M., Mattana, E. & Ulian, T. (2025) Prioritisation of native trees for enhancing carbon sequestration in shade-grown coffee plantations in the State of Veracruz (México): linking conservation and ecological traits to community needs. Agroforestry Systems. 99: 55. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-025-01155-2
Sampayo-Maldonado, S., Cabrera-Santos, D., Dávila-Aranda, P., Rodríguez-Aréalo, N.A., Orozco-Segovia, A., Gianella, M., Bell, E., Way, M., Manson, R.H., Quintas, G.S., Flores-Ortíz, C.M. & Ulian, T. (2025) Using the optimal seed germination temperature approach to determine the potential distribution of Inga jinicuil in Mexico under climate change scenarios. Scientific Reports. 15: 3951. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-88171-5

Issue 10: September 2024

In this issue we hear about what the most recent cohort of RBG Kew science interns at the Millennium Seed Bank have been up to and the launch of a new database collating germination information for Mediterranean species. An interview with, features Alice Livingstone, Research Nursery Lead at Wakehurst, and our species profile comes from Mexico, the endangered fir Abies hickelii.

Three petri dishes containing germinated seeds are placed on a workbench. Each dish has writing on the lid and a marker pen lays next to the petri dishes — Germination checks (Photo: Chih-Wei Hsieh).

A close up of the seed coat of a hazel seed. The seed coat at the tip appears yellow in colour merging to light brown — A *Corylus avellana* seed, UK. (Photo: Billur Topbas & Remy Wood).

A tray of plant pots each containing a small tufty plant. Some individuals are sending up small flowering spikes with whorls of small white flowers. — *Polygala amarella*, UK. (Photo: Jenny Peach).

Whorls of elongated pine cones emerging from pine branches. The cones are covered in lichen and are at different stages of seed dispersal, with some cones having lost the top most scales revealing the top of the central cone stem. Whilst other cones have all their scales intact — *Abies hickleii*, Mexico. (Photo: Armando Ponce Vargas).

Stories from the field and lab this issue explores the activities of three of RBG Kew's summer interns.

Long-term seed conservation is a global necessity for safeguarding biodiversity, however some species cannot be successfully conserved long-term by conventional seed banking. This can be for several reasons, such as seeds being short-lived in seed bank storage or seeds being unable to survive desiccation meaning they cannot be dried and frozen. Research funded by the Garfield Weston Foundation through the Global Tree Seed Bank: Unlocked programme is studying the stress resilience and cryopreservation of tree seeds to improve their ex-situ conservation. One goal of the project is to identify tree species that might have short-lived seeds in conventional seed bank storage.

Analysis of germination re-test data from the MSB tree seed collections was carried out, focusing on genera that are also represented in the Global Tree Seed Bank collections. Approximately 20 species from each of the genera Melaleuca, Leucadendron and Eucalyptus, and the family Cupressaceae were identified for further study. For each genus or family, half of the selected species showed no decline in germination after 10 years of storage at −20°C, while the other half showed a decline, and are potentially short-lived.

A scientist in a lab coat is leaning over a work bench and focusing on small, black objects, using a metal utensil to separate the objects. A microscope can be seen just to his left and lab equipment is across the workbench, including a glass vile, tweezers and brown paper bags. — Chih-Wei Hsieh counting the number of seed taken out from the MSB seed vault. (Photo: Xia Liu).

I began my internship with the Seed and Stress Biology team at the MSB by testing germination for each of the accessions identified in this initial analysis. Firstly, I did germination tests with three replicates, each containing 25 seeds. The germination temperature for each species was specific and based on the conditions used for previous germination tests at the MSB. The germination percentages were recorded weekly until no further germination was observed for at least three weeks.

The seeds were also screened for other traits related to quality and storability. I assessed seed quality using X-ray imaging to determine the proportion of empty and damaged seeds. Additionally, I measured oil content and lipid melting/crystallisation characteristics by Time-Domain Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (TD-NMR) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) machines, respectively.

A scientist wearing a lab coat sits at a computer, with the mouse in his hand and he is focusing on the screen. On the monitor is an x-ray image showing many full tear drop shaped seeds — Chih-Wei Hsieh using the X-ray machine to check the seed quality. (Photo: Xia Liu).

A computer monitor displaying dialogue boxes containing data is on a bench next to two white and blue, plastic machines. — Seed oil content was measured by NMR machine. (Photo: Chih-Wei Hsieh).

The preliminary results showed that the germination percentage declined dramatically in most Melaleuca species, while most Leucadendron and Eucalyptus species germinated well after 20 years of storage under −20°C. In addition, there was a positive correlation between the oil content and germination percentage in Melaleuca, while no relationship was observed in the other three genera/family. Once the germination tests have been completed, the findings will be updated. Through this research the team and I aim to identify and understand the relationships between seed traits. This will include oil content and lipid thermal properties, and longevity, which will help us to predict which species may be short-lived and require alternative storage conditions, such as cryopreservation, for their long-term conservation.

Introduction

In sub-Saharan Africa, habitat loss driven by human activities and climate change poses significant threats to the survival of plant species (Perrings & Halkos, 2015). Between 2000-2015, the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) had deposited seeds from 14% of the plant species in the world, with a goal to reach 25% by 2020, prioritising the collection of seeds from economically significant, endangered, and endemic species (Griffiths et al., 2015). Maximizing genetic diversity within this ex situ collection is also a priority and one of the primary goals of plant conservation. Undertaking Gap Analyses is a useful exercise for identifying areas where collection is not representative, ensuring that limited resources are directed to where they are most needed (Maxted et al., 2008). Given the challenge of desiccation intolerance of seeds in preservation, it is also important to predict which “missing” collections are likely to be desiccation sensitive and prioritise the collection of seed that can be effectively stored in orthodox seed banking (Wyse & Dickie, 2017).

Sub-Saharan Africa (S-SA) includes all regions south of the Sahara Desert. Currently, the number of species from S-SA represented by collections banked at the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) has increased from around 1,100 in 1995 to over 11,000 by 2024. Currently, more than 25,000 active seed collections from S-SA are stored at the MSB. In the preparation of collecting plans and identifying geographical areas for future partnerships, we have a commitment to store at least one representative sample of every bankable genus at the MSB. This will afford an opportunity to identify collection strategies, storage behaviour, and germination requirements across a wide array of the African flora. For this we need an analysis of our missing genera. To date, such a broad gap analysis has not been completed. This analysis aims to identify the countries with the highest number and proportion of missing genera, providing insights and potential directions for future seed collection partnerships and projects in S-SA.

Methodology

Seed accessions from S-SA were obtained from the Earthcape Integrated Collection Management System (ICMS) database. The taxonomic and distribution data were sourced from the World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP), downloaded from Plants of the World Online. The data were cleaned and filtered using R package “dplyr” in R 4.2.0 (R Core Team, 2022; Wickham et al., 2023). The Earthcape database currently holds over 110,000 seed accessions banked across MSBP. Non-S-SA species (69%) and those collections that have been removed from active management (RAM) (7%) were manually filtered out. After excluding accessions only determined to genus or higher level, 22% of the accessions remained. The names from WCVP were filtered to remove synonyms (60.8%), non-species (27.6%), unaccepted (9.2%) and ferns (4.6%). The non-S-SA records (83.4%) introduced (11.4%), location-doubtful (0.1%) and extinct (0.1%) records were also removed from distribution records in WCVP. This process resulted in the removal of 76% of names and 85% of distribution records from the WCVP data.

After matching the data from Earthcape and WCVP, we identified the missing genera and species. TDWG level 3 codes were extracted for each species and genus from the distribution data to determine the number of missing genera and species for each country in S-SA. To identify those genera that were likely to have many desiccation intolerant species, the missing species list was then input into a seed storage behaviour prediction tool to assess the proportion of species likely to be desiccation intolerant (Wyse & Dickie, 2018). The proportion and number of missing genera per country were mapped using QGIS.

Results and Conclusion

Our analysis revealed that over 11,000 species and 2,100 genera native to S-SA have already been collected by the MSBP. However, 48% of species and 36% of genera from the region remain uncollected. Among the missing species, over 11% were predicted to be recalcitrant (Table 1), which is slightly higher than the overall proportion of recalcitrant species.

Table 1: Percentage of recalcitrant species in missing genera predicted by Wyse & Dickie (2018).
Seed Storage Behaviour	Percentage of Missing Species
Orthodox	85.5%
Recalcitrant	11.6%
Insufficient Info	2.9%

The countries with the highest number of missing genera include the Democratic Republic of Congo (579), Cameroon (538), Tanzania (478), and Gabon (472) (Fig. 1). Meanwhile, Gabon (39.8%), Equatorial Guinea (38.0%), Republic of Congo (35.6%), and Cameroon (35.0%) have the highest proportion of missing genera of all the plant genera in their country still requiring collection (Fig. 2). In contrast, countries like Mali, Eswatini, Botswana, Burkina Faso, and The Gambia have the lowest proportion of missing genera, with only 8-12% of genera uncollected. These findings align with the current partnerships established by the Millennium Seed Bank.

A map of sub-Saharan Africa showing in different shades of red and yellow the number of genera missing from the Millennium Seed Bank. — Figure 1: Number of missing genera for each country in sub-Saharan Africa. A table of the data shown in this map is available at the bottom of the article.

A map of sub-Saharan Africa showing in different shades of red and yellow the proportion of genera missing from the Millennium Seed Bank. — Figure 2: Proportion of missing genera for each country in sub-Saharan Africa.A table of the data shown in this map is available at the bottom of the article.

In conclusion, the preliminary results of our gap analysis suggest that it is critical for the Millennium Seed Bank to establish and strengthen partnerships with countries in Central and West Africa, particularly in regions with tropical rainforests and high plant species diversity. Future analyses will further evaluate these missing species, considering their economic and medicinal value, as well as their endemic and endangered status, to prioritise those most urgently in need of seed banking.

References

Griffiths, K.E., Balding, S.T., Dickie, J.B., Lewis, G.P., Pearce, T.R. & Grenyer, R. (2015) Maximising the phylogenetic diversity of seed banks. Conservation Biology. 29: 370-381.
Maxted, N., Dulloo, E., Ford-Lloyd, B.V., Iriondo, J.M. & Jarvis, A. (2008) Gap analysis: a tool for complementary genetic conservation assessment. Diversity and Distributions. 14: 1018-1030.
Perrings, C. & Halkos, G. (2015) Agriculture and the threat to biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa. Environmental Research Letters. 10: 095015.
R Core Team (2022) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Available at: https://www.R-project.org.
Wickham, H., François, R., Henry, L., Müller, K., & Vaughan, D. (2023) dplyr: A grammer of data manipulation. R package version .1.4. Available at: https://dplyr.tidyverse.org
Wyse, S.V. & Dickie, J.B. (2017) Predicting the global incidence of seed desiccation sensitivity. Journal of Ecology. 105: 1082-1093.
Wyse, S.V. & Dickie, J.B. (2018) Taxonomic addinity, habitat, and seed mass strongly predict seed desiccation response: a boosted regression trees analysis based on 17,539 species. Annals of Botany. 121: 71-83.

Detailed tables for map data

Table 2: Data breakdown for the map in Figure 1
Number of missing genera	Country
0-100	Mauritania, Mali, Botswana, Lesotho, Djibouti, Burkina, Réunion, Mauritius, Seychelles, Niger, Gambia
100-200	Malawi, Eritrea, Rwanda, Benin, Chad, Namibia, Senegal, Burundi, Free State, Togo, Swaziland, Guinea-Bissau
200-300	Uganda, Sudan, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana, Zambia, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, Equatorial Guinea, Somalia, Zimbabwe
300-400	Nigeria, Kenya, Angola, Ethiopia, Ivory Coast, Central African Republic
400-500	Tanzania, Gabon, Madagascar, Congo Republic
500-600	DR Congo, Cameroon

Table 3: Data breakdown for the map in Figure 2
Percentage of missing genera	Country
6%-12%	Gambia, Burkina, Botswana, Niger
12%-18%	Mali, Swaziland, Namibia, Burundi, Togo, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Benin, Chad, Free State, Rwanda, Lesotho, Mauritius, Djibouti
18%-24%	Mozambique, Réunion, Zambia, Mauritania, Eritrea, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, Angola
24%-30%	Somalia, Ethiopia, Guinea, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Seychelles, Central African Republic, Tanzania, Ivory Coast, Nigeria
30%-36%	Madagascar, Liberia, DR Congo, Cameroon, Congo Republic
36%-42%	Gabon, Equatorial Guinea

The Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) is a cradle of biodiversity, possessing billions of seeds from more than 40,000 species around the globe. Far more understated is its crucial role in actively advancing our understanding of plant science and practices for ecological restoration. This excited me when the opportunity to work with the Seed and Stress Biology team at the MSB presented itself, and it permeates through much of the work I have carried out since joining RBG Kew at the start of July 2024.

A seed scientist, sat at a laboratory bench smiling at the camera. On the bench is a computer next to a microscope, on the computer screen is an image of a seed. — Myself doing light microscopy imaging. (Photo: Billur Topbas).

The primary example of this is my work on a project focused on the application of plasma treatment on the seeds of six native UK tree species. Plasma is the fourth state of matter, with lightning being the most ubiquitous example. By applying plasma to the surface of seeds we can change different seed properties to enable better tree growth, such as improving water uptake through changing the structure of the seed coat or conferring anti-microbial and anti-fungal properties. Plasma treatment methods include directly applying it onto seeds or indirectly applying it by treating water or air passed over the seeds. The tree species the project focuses on are Alnus glutinosa (alder), Betula pubescens (downy birch), Corylus avellana (hazel), Fagus sylvatica (beech), Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), and Sorbus aucuparia (rowan), all of which are vital components of UK forests. The project is funded by the Forestry Commission through the Tree Production Innovation Fund, which seeks to address the challenges in upscaling tree production. Variable seed quality and overcoming dormancy are critical issues for raising trees from seeds. By investigating novel technologies such as plasma treatments and developing an understanding of its effects on these tree species, we may get closer to reaching more of our UK climate- and biodiversity-related goals. Plasma treatment also has much in common with another research area, seed priming, which has previously been discussed in articles in this newsletter (E-newsletter issue 8 – Millennium Seed Bank Intern stories).

The experiments I have been involved in include testing how plasma impacts the seeds' imbibition (water uptake) rate, germination timing and success rate. All of this was done with my lab partner, Billur Topbas, whom I have greatly enjoyed working with. Alongside this main task, I have been able to support other projects in the team. This includes monitoring germination of the very short-lived seeds of Salix caprea (goat willow) and Populus tremula (aspen) to understand how their storage can be influenced by different conditions, such as temperature, relative humidity, light and the presence of oxygen. This further highlights the key role of Kew’s research at the MSB in developing new methodologies for many plant species.

A close up of the seed coats of two hazel seeds. The seed coat of the control seed is sandy coloured at the tip before merging to the usual brown seed coat. In contrast for the plasma treated air exposed seed the tip appears yellow in colour merging to light brown — Stacked multi-focus images of exterior of a *Corylus avellana* control seed versus a seed exposed to plasma treated air. (Photo: Billur Topbas & Remy Wood).

From a personal standpoint, being able to work on these projects has been a privilege. The opportunity to contribute to active research has been inspiring, as during my degree seed priming has been a subject which has captivated my imagination. Thus, being able to not just contribute to this field, but actively push it forward by joining the Seed and Stress Biology team has been brilliant. This placement has been challenging; it has pushed my abilities to develop new methods for experiments and to problem-solve to meet critical deadlines. I am grateful for these difficulties, however, because in the future I know they will serve me well and be experiences to look back upon and learn from. Furthermore, the lab techniques learnt, and habits developed will aid my future endeavours as I seek to do an Integrated Masters year at the University of Bath.

The Across the MSBP article this issue shares the launch of an exciting new germination database for the Mediterranean region.

Published in Applied Vegetation Science, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12771

We are pleased to say that MedGermDB, the first open-access database of seed germination records from the Mediterranean basin, previously announced in Issue 39 of the Samara newsletter, is now ready. We have used a novel systematic process for the automatic identification and compilation of literature sources on seed germination. This database, as part of a PhD Project at the University of Pisa, aids ecological research and conservation for characteristic species of European Nature Information System (EUNIS) habitats from this fragile biodiversity hotspot. Its creation is a fundamental step towards understanding the risk of extinction of native species and preventing the disadvantages that can result from the loss of this natural capital.

It contains about 4700 tests, each one linked to seedlot metadata, recording geographical information and experimental conditions (Figure 1).

A map of the Mediterranean Basin including southern Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. The regions nearest the Mediterranean Sea are highlighted in a light green colour, and dozens of yellow circles of differing size are scattered all over the green area. A key at the bottom of the image reads 'Germination tests' and beneath this writing are 4 yellow circles of different sizes, going from smallest to largest. The smallest circle in the key represents less than 10, the next size up represents less than 50, the next represents less than 100 and the largest circle represents less than 200. The map shows clusters of high germination test numbers in Sicily, southern Sardinia, Western Turkiye, Israel, northern Tunisia, Mallorca, and across Spain. — Figure 1: Geographical distribution of germination collections included in the database. Circle sizes correspond to the number of records (i.e., germination tests).

MedGermDB is available as a csv file, and through a web app at: https://dianamariacruztejada.shinyapps.io/medgermdb/ (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Screenshot of the Shiny App.

Alice works in the glasshouses at the Millennium Seed Bank. Her job involves working on a variety of different projects. Harriet Fermor interviewed her to find out more about what goes on in the glasshouses.

A woman stood smiling at the camera. She is wearing a navy blue jacket with Wakehurst written on it. — Alice ready for a day in the nursery. (Photo: Harriet Fermor).

If you could be a seed or plant, what would you be and why?

Right now, I would like to be a water-crowfoot, Ranunculus aquatilis, in a flowing chalk stream in Hampshire.

What is your most memorable field trip experience?

An A-level biology field trip to the Isle of Unst in the Shetland Isles. We were looking at Shetland mouse-ear, Cerastium nigrescens, on the Keen of Hamar. I was never very engaged during lessons at school, but my teacher commented that I came alive out in the field.

How did you get into horticulture?

During my Landscape Management degree course, I took a placement year at the Cliveden estate in Buckinghamshire, as a student gardener and I knew then that I wanted to do a physical, practical, job with plants.

What is one of the most satisfying moments you've had in your conservation work?

Figuring out how to grow Polygala amarella successfully for the Species Recovery Trust. I had many difficult starts with this species, but I think I now have it solved. It is very satisfying to finally understand what a plant needs to thrive.

You're involved in lots of different projects, can you give us some examples?

I am working with the Darwin Tree of Life Project to map DNA of the UK flora. Also, I am growing Phyteuma spicatum and Polygala amarella for the Species Recovery Trust. Although the bulk of my work is growing plants for the Millennium Seed Bank. I grow on seed from the bank, so that the scientists can eventually confirm the identity of the plant, this ensures that all our seed collections are correctly labelled.

A range of plant pots containing many plants with basal leaf rosettes with tall inflorescence spikes growing. The inflorescence spikes are cream in colour. — *Phyteuma spicatum* plants growing on outside the nursery ready to be planted out. (Photo: Jenny Peach).

What does a typical day look like for you?

Now, it is lots of watering first thing! Then I will check on the plants and see what actions need taking. Today I have been weeding the plants I have growing outside on my balcony, sweeping away debris that might harbour pests or diseases, and potting up any plants that need it. This afternoon, I have collected seedlings which the seed bank has germinated. I will prick these seedlings out from agar onto compost to grow on.

What are you working on now?

We have an exciting new project to create an area for growing the rare arable weed Melampyrum arvense. It will be great to create an area in the nursery where I can keep some UK threatened flora stock. I will hopefully be simulating their natural conditions in a raised bed.

What advice would you give to anyone who wants to get involved in horticulture?

If you like plants, physical work and don’t mind getting dirty then horticulture is a fantastic career for you. There are so many branches of horticulture, that everyone can find a job to suit them. There is something for everyone.

What made you apply for your job at Kew?

When I moved to Sussex from High Wycombe, I knew that I wanted to work on the Habitat Parterres at Wakehurst. I love the UK flora and had not seen it showcased anywhere else like this in a garden before. I love working with plants but wanted to grow plants for conservation purposes rather than in a historic garden setting, which is why working for a botanic garden such as Wakehurst is a perfect fit for me.

Four rectangular raised beds in a row infront of a large building. Each of the raised beds has something different growing in it. One is covrered in white flowers, one has a row of chalk rocks running down the centre and one is covered with shingle. On the end is a slightly lower raised rectangle which contains a pond with vegetation growing in it — The Wakehurst Parterres outside the Millennium Seed Bank. (Photo: Wolfgang Stuppy).

This article is available in both english and spanish.

Este artículo está disponible en inglés y español.

A rocky road to seed collection: the story of Abies hickelii

Article by Isela Norma Rodríguez-Arévalo (Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala de la Universidad Autónoma de México), Diana Carolina Acosta Rojas, Michael Way, Silvia Bacci & M. Ford (RBG Kew)

Abies hickelii Flous & Gaussen (Pinaceae), commonly known as “Oyamel de Suárez”, is a species of fir endemic to Mexico and listed as Endangered (EN) by the IUCN.

This evergreen conifer normally occurs in pine-oak forests at elevations between 2,500 and 3,000 m in cool and moist climates with abundant rain during the winter.

A tall conical shaped tree growing on the edge of a slope. The branches are sparsely covered in needles towards the centre trunk but more densely covered towards the tips — *Abies hickelii*. (Photo: Armando Ponce Vargas).

The populations of this species are severely fragmented due to deforestation, triggered by agriculture, livestock farming and logging.

Oyamel is mainly propagated for restoration and its seeds are collected for conservation purposes, as they are orthodox, so they can be conserved long-term in seed banks.

Propagating this species is quite difficult, since its seeds generally take a long time to germinate, possibly because of dormancy. Also, the seedlings need to be transplanted with great care to limit seedling mortality. Selective thinning is an advised practice in restoration for this species, in order to enhance sapling vigour and reduce intraspecific competition.

As A. hickelii is found in very remote locations and the trees can grow very tall, it is not an easy job to reach the cones to collect the seeds.

Here we will recount the story of a challenging seed collection trip where the brave botanists of the seed bank of the Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (FES-I UNAM) managed to secure 800 seeds of this precious species.

The first encounter with Abies hickelii was a stroke of luck. While exploring a forest in the Veracruz state, the FES-I UNAM seed collecting team found a small population of these trees.

They were eager to collect the seeds but faced a significant challenge: the cones were out of reach, and they did not have a tool for collecting seeds from such high branches. Therefore, they had to find an alternative method in order to avoid missing the opportunity to collect. Throwing stones to remove the cones seemed a bit too rough and irreverent towards the friendly giant. However, after some apologies, the team plucked up the courage and started aiming at the cones with any heavy object they could find. It worked well, and 20 cones were collected. A small but promising start.

Looking up into the branches of a fir tree, towards the tips are clusters of pine cones. The tops of the pine cones have started to disperse on some of the cones giving them a flat edge — Cones of *Abies hickelii*. (Photo: Armando Ponce Vargas).

Encouraged by their initial success, the team planned a second trip to collect more seeds. This time, they were equipped with a big shot catapult, a tool designed to help reach high branches. However, their journey was full of difficulties. The vehicle they were using broke down, causing significant delays and adding to their frustration. But the problems did not end there: in fact, once they reached the population, they had to find a way to use the big shot catapult effectively, which was exhausting. Each shot required precision and strength, and the repetitive nature of the task took its toll on the collectors.

Nonetheless, their determination paid off.

After several hours of laborious work, they succeeded in collecting many cones which contained a total of around 800 seeds that are now stored at the FES-I UNAM seed bank, safe and waiting to contribute to future restoration activities.

It is (and it was!) a rocky road to conserve A. hickelii, but there is still hope, and there will be hope as long as conservationists and people all over the world will keep working tirelessly, with dedication and resilience, to preserve our planet's biodiversity.

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Un camino áspero para la recolección de semillas: la historia de Abies hickelii

Artículo de Isela Norma Rodríguez-Arévalo (Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala de la Universidad Autónoma de México), Diana Carolina Acosta Rojas, Michael Way, Silvia Bacci & M. Ford (RBG Kew)

Abies hickelii Flous & Gaussen (Pinaceae), commonly known as “Oyamel de Suárez”, is a species of fir endemic to Mexico and listed as Endangered (EN) by the IUCN.

Esta conífera perennifolia se encuentra normalmente en bosques de pino-encino a elevaciones entre 2.500 y 3.000 m en climas frescos y húmedos con abundantes lluvias durante el invierno.

Un árbol alto de forma cónica que crece en el borde de una pendiente. Las ramas están escasamente cubiertas de agujas hacia el centro del tronco, pero más densamente cubiertas hacia las puntas. — *Abies hickelii*. (Photo: Armando Ponce Vargas).

Las poblaciones de esta especie est´n severamente fragmentadas debido a la deforestación, provocada por la agricultura, la ganadería y la tala.

El oyamel se propaga principalmente para la restauración y sus semillas se recolectan con fines de conservación, ya que son ortodoxas, por lo que se pueden conservar a largo plazo en los bancos de semillas. La propagación de esta especie es bastante difícil, ya que sus semillas generalmente tardan mucho tiempo en germinar, posiblemente debido a algún tipo de latencia. Además, las plántulas deben trasplantarse con mucho cuidado para limitar su mortalidad. El aclareo selectivo es una práctica aconsejada en la restauración de esta especie, con el fin de mejorar el vigor de los árboles jóvenes y reducir la competencia intraespecífica.

Como A. hickelii se encuentra en lugares muy remotos y los árboles pueden crecer muy altos, no es un trabajo fácil llegar a los conos para recolectar las semillas.

Aquí contaremos la historia de un desafiante viaje de recolección de semillas donde los valientes botánicos del banco de semillas de la Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (FES-I UNAM) lograron asegurar 800 semillas de esta valiosa especie.

El primer encuentro con Abies hickelii fue un golpe de suerte. Mientras exploraba un bosque en el estado de Veracruz, el equipo de recolección de semillas de la FES-I UNAM encontró una pequeña población de estos árboles. Estaban ansiosos por recolectar las semillas, pero se enfrentaron a un desafío importante: los conos estaban fuera de su alcance y no tenían una herramienta para recolectar semillas de ramas tan altas. Por lo tanto, tuvieron que encontrar un método alternativo para no perder la oportunidad de recolectar. Lanzar piedras para quitar los conos parecía demasiado brusco e irreverente hacia el simpático gigante. Sin embargo, después de algunas disculpas, el equipo se armó de valor y comenzó a apuntar a los conos con cualquier objeto pesado que pudieran encontrar. Funcionó bien y se recolectaron 20 conos. Un comienzo pequeño pero prometedor. Animados por su éxito inicial, el equipo planeó un segundo viaje para recolectar más semillas. Esta vez, estaban equipados con una catapulta de tiro grande, una herramienta diseñada para ayudar a alcanzar las ramas altas. Sin embargo, el viaje estuvo lleno de dificultades. El vehículo que utilizaban se descompuso, lo que provocó retrasos significativos y un aumento de su frustración. Pero los problemas no terminaron ahí: de hecho, una vez que llegaron a la población, tuvieron que encontrar la manera de usar la catapulta de manera efectiva, lo cual fue agotador, como cada disparo se tenía que repetir muchas veces, requeriendo precisión y fuerza.

Mirando hacia las ramas de un abeto, hacia las puntas hay grupos de piñas. Las puntas de algunas piñas han comenzado a dispersar, lo que les da un borde plano. — Conos de *Abies hickelii*. (Photo: Armando Ponce Vargas).

Sin embargo, su determinación dió sus frutos. Después de varias horas de arduo trabajo, lograron recolectar muchos conos que contenían un total de alrededor de 800 semillas que ahora se encuentran almacenadas en el banco de semillas de la FES-I UNAM, seguras y a la espera de contribuir a futuras actividades de restauración.

Espirales de piñas alargadas que emergen de las ramas de los pinos. Las piñas están cubiertas de líquenes y se encuentran en diferentes etapas de dispersión de semillas; algunas piñas han perdido las escamas más superficiales, dejando al descubierto la parte superior del tallo central de la piña, mientras que otras tienen todas sus escamas intactas. — Conos de *Abies hickelii*. (Photo: Armando Ponce Vargas).

Es un camino áspero para conservar A. hickelii, pero todavía hay esperanza, y habrá esperanza mientras los conservacionistas y las personas de todo el mundo sigan trabajando incansablemente, con dedicación y resiliencia, para preservar la biodiversidad de nuestro planeta.

Issue 9: June 2024

In this issue we hear about field adventures in the UK and Armenia. In 'Across the MSBP' we celebrate the National Agricultural Research Council (NARC) of Jordan being awarded the King Adullah II Ibn Al-Hussein medal for Excellence, 25 years of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) and RBG Kew partnership and the culmination of the Medicinal Plants of Pakistan project. The Seed Bank profile this issue sees us travelling to Ghana to find out more about the National Tree Seed Centre, whilst for 'An interview with' we travel to the Domincan Republic and catch up with Wilkin Encarnacióon from Jardín Botánico Nacional (JBN). The species profile looks at the Cryptocarya of Madagascar and question of the quarter presents two new technical information sheets now available on the MSBP website.

A close-up of aspen seed catkins, showing tiny black seeds amongst white fluff — *Populus tremula*, UK. (Photo: Matthew Jeffery).

Three ripe inflorescence spikes. Each has whorls of oblong greeny/ brown pods up them with the light brown dry looking flower remnants on the end — *Anacamptis coriophora*, Armenia. (Photo: Aisyah Faruk).

Close-up of a pile of small round Cryptocarya fruits being sorted by hand, the fruits vary in colour from olive green to a deep red — *Cryptocarya* fruits, Madagascar. (Photo: Clare Callow).

Two round dark purple fruits surrounded by short spiked needle like leaves — *Juniperus*, Pakistan. (Photo: Babar Chaudhry).

Stories from the field and lab this issue come from Armenia and the UK.

Introduction

The ability of seeds to be dried and stored over many years has helped humanity to thrive over the centuries, and we are now utilising this unique trait to save numerous plants from extinction through conservation seed banking. In seed banks, seeds are conventionally dried to very low water contents (<10%) and then stored at the sub-zero temperatures reached in standard freezers (ca. -20°C). However, some species have seeds that are unsuitable for conventional seed banking techniques, known as “exceptional species” (Pence et al., 2022). Orchid seeds come under this umbrella term, due to their short longevity in seed banks and difficulty in germinating/propagation after storage.

Armenia is part of the Caucasus global biodiversity hotspot (Zazanashvili et al., 2020), with around 42 species of orchids found growing within its territory, all of which are terrestrial. A previous study found nationally important orchid species outside of designated protected areas (Faruk et al., 2021), increasing the threat from further loss and/or degradation. Additionally, the trade of orchid tubers in the Minor Asian region has raised concern over its effects on wild populations (Hinsley et al., 2018). Therefore, there is an urgent need to enhance the ex situ conservation of Armenia’s native orchid species, thereby further strengthening the nation’s commitment to biodiversity conservation.

Funded by the Darwin Initiative’s Capacity and Capability Grant, RBG Kew and collaborators from the Nature Heritage environmental, agricultural non-governmental organization in Armenia and the A. Takhtajan Institute of Botany of the National Academy of Sciences of Armenia spent the last two years enhancing the ex situ and in situ conservation of native orchids of Armenia, through training events, community engagement and seed collecting and banking. Here, we report on our initial results from the ex situ conservation aspect of our project, where we set out to identify the most effective and low-cost method for preserving seeds of terrestrial orchids both in-country and duplicated to the Millennium Seed Bank.

Fieldwork

A map of Armenia with 10 clusters of red diamonds showing the locations where orchid seed collections were made. These highlight the areas of: Sers, Goghtanik, Surenavan, north of Antarut, Tsovagyugh, Dilijan, Haghartsin, Gosh, Ijevan and Aznvadzor — Figure 1: Map showing the localities of orchid seed collections in 2022 and 2023 by the project team (red diamonds). Map was constructed using QGIS (version 3.16.16). Administration map derived from DivaGIS. Basemap derived from Bing Map via the QGIS QuickMapService Plugin.

Seed collections were made in 2022 (July and August) and 2023 (June and July) (Figure 1). The team came across several challenges when collecting orchid seeds. Firstly, spotting the orchids themselves proved a difficult enough task, as many of the native terrestrial orchids are found in meadows and/or grasslands (Figure 2). The second challenge was related to timing of collecting, as collectors came across many unripe or semi-matured seed pods (Figure 3). We collected semi-matured seed pods (i.e. those that were close to ripening) together with some of the flowering stalk and allowed them to mature in the Seed Bank of Armenian Flora of the A. Takhtajan Institute of Botany NAS RA in accordance with MSBP Technical Information Sheet 04.

A tall grassland in the foreground consisting of Chartholepis glastifolia, Galium verum, Dactylis glomerata and Stipa sp. — Figure 2: Orchid habitat. (Photo: RBG Kew).

A hand pinching the end of a small green orchid seed pod between their thumb and forefinger. The orchid pod has been cut open and is white inside. — Figure 3b: Unripe pod of *Dactylorhiza* spp. (Photo: RBG Kew).

Processing and storage

Cleaning orchid seeds proved to be relatively straightforward. Due to their size, small sieves with mesh size from 10 to 100 μm were used, which enabled the dust-like seeds to fall to the bottom and be separated by the larger pods/debris. However, due to their small size, separating empty and full seeds was impossible, impeding the completion of this step.

The advantage of working with orchids is that they produce a significant number of seeds! This trait allowed us to set up long-term storage experiments that we aim to carry on past the end of the project. Where available, we split each collection into different drying and storage treatments (see Figure 4 for details). Relative humidity chambers were set up in the Seed Bank of Armenian Flora using different concentrations of lithium chloride solutions following the MSBP Technical Information Sheet 09. Once cleaned, seeds were loosely packed in paper envelopes and left in the chambers for at least 48 hours to ensure the desired equilibrium Relative Humidity (eRH) had been reached, before being sealed in foil bags and placed in their respective storage temperature treatments.

A flow diagram showing Seed Collection A at the top. Below seed Collection A, three boxes come off: 15 percent RH, 30 percent RH and 50 percent RH. From each of these three boxes three additional boxes come off them of 5 degrees C, -20 degrees C and -80 degrees C. — Figure 4: Drying and storage temperature treatments for each seed collections.

After 6-months, the sealed foil bags were taken out and shipped to the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB). Once at the MSB, a subset of seeds from each treatment were viability tested using the fluorescein diacetate (FDA) staining method. The number of embryos stained by the FDA (i.e. viable), not stained, and empty were counted using a fluorescent microscope. Below we outline our initial 6-months storage findings for orchid seeds that were stored with the 15% RH and −20°C treatment.

Results

A total of 45 seed collections from 17 species from 10 unique genera were made over two years. Here, we report on the 6-month viability of the following seven species:

Anacamptis coriophora (L.) R.M.Bateman, Pridgeon & M.W.Chase
Anacamptis pyramidalis (L.) Rich.
Dactylorhiza incarnata (Klinge) H.Sund.
Dactylorhiza urvilleana (Steud.) H.Baumann & Künkele
Orchis mascula (L.) L.
Platanthera chlorantha (Custer) Rchb.

Although we found a 12% reduction in average viability for semi-matured (mean value: 71.7% ± 13.55 confidence interval (CI)) seeds compared to matured seeds (mean value: 82.5% ± 9.59 CI) (Figure 5), the mean values were not significantly different.

Matured seed with a mean estimated viability percentage of 82.5 percent, a median of 89 percent, a lower quartile of 64 percent and upper quartile of 97 percent, the lower bar representing the minimum value sits at 50 percent, whilst the higher bar representing the maximum value sits at 100 percent. Semi-matured seed with a mean estimated viability percentage of 71.7 percent, a median of 83.5 percent, a lower quartile of 60 percent and upper quartile of 92.3 percent, the lower bar representing the minimum value sits at 16, whilst the higher bar representing the maximum value sits at 100 percent — Figure 5: Box-and-whisker plot of estimated viability (%) of orchid seeds using FDA staining between seeds collected matured versus semi-matured (i.e. ripened in seed bank) and stored for 6 months at −20°C after drying at 15% RH. Mean values represented by X, median values represented by horizontal line within the boxes, top and bottom of boxes represent the upper and lower quantiles, respectively, and the ends of the whiskers represent the minimum and maximum values.

Across the species studied viability ranged from a minimum of 16% (P. chlorantha) to 100% (A. coriophora, D. incarnata and P. chlorantha). Three out of the six species (50%) we tested had an average viability of over 80%: A. coriophora (mean value: 85% ± 9.74 CI), D. incarnata (mean value: 78% ± 16.96 CI) and D. urvilleana (mean value: 80% ± 14.76). The worst performing species under these conditions was A. pyramidalis (mean value: 42% ± 0.98 CI) (Figure 6). Although our preliminary results suggest that the conventional seed banking techniques (i.e. drying at 15% eRH and storing at −20°C) could be used to maintain viability for some species and not others, care still needs to be taken to ensure that the viability of seeds at the point of collection is high. For example, in our study, the large range seen in the viability of P. chlorantha suggests that the values are related to the quality of the collection itself rather than an effect of the treatment, as the collection with the lowest viability of 16% also showed a low pre-treatment viability score (40%).

Anacamptis coriophora estimated viability: lower bar of 58 percent, lower quartile of 71 percent, mean value of 84.9 percent, median of 92 percent, upper quartile of 94 percent, upper bar of 100 percent, Anacamptis pyramidalis estimated viability: lower bar of 41 percent, lower quartile of 41.3 percent, mean value of 41.5 percent, median of 41.5 percent, upper quartile of 41.7 percent, upper bar of 42 percent; Dactylorhiza incarnata estimated viability: lower bar of 20 percent, lower quartile of 76 percent, mean value of 78.1 percent, median of 84.5 percent, upper quartile of 95.5 percent, upper bar of 100 percent; Dactylorhiza urvilleana estimated viability: lower bar of 50 percent, lower quartile of 71.3 percent, mean value of 80.3 percent, median of 87.5 percent, upper quartile of 91.7 percent, upper bar of 98 percent; Orchis mascula estimated viability: lower bar of 62 percent, lower quartile of 68.7 percent, mean value of 75.5 percent, median of 75.5 percent, upper quartile of 82.2 percent, upper bar of 89 percent; Platanthera chlorantha estimated viability: lower bar of 16 percent, lower quartile of 37 percent, mean value of 58 percent, median of 58 percent, upper quartile of 79 percent, upper bar of 100 percent. — Figure 6: Box-and-whisker plot of estimated viability (%) of orchid seeds using FDA staining of seven target species stored for 6 months at −20°C after drying at 15% RH. Mean values represented by X, median values by horizontal line within the boxes, top and bottom of boxes represent the upper and lower quantiles, respectively, and the ends of the whiskers represent the minimum and maximum values. Solid points are outliers.

Conclusions

Orchid seeds have been recognised as challenging for collectors, as seeds are small and easily dispersed when matured. Collecting at the right time can be tricky as we need to ensure ripeness but collect before all the seeds have dispersed. Additionally, orchid seeds are potentially short-lived, and therefore need to be dried and banked within two weeks of collecting. However, sending seeds to a separate site (e.g. Millennium Seed Bank) for safe duplication can be hampered by many variables that are out of the hands of the donating organisation (e.g. processing times for phytosanitary certificates and/or relevant export permits, fast delivery/reliability of chosen couriers). All these variables can impact the success rate of short-lived seeds.

The initial results of our study shows that collecting seeds at the semi-matured state to ripen at the local seed bank can be a viable option for temperate, terrestrial orchids. However, we do highlight that the variation in viability of semi-matured seeds is higher than those collected when fully matured.

We also found that for half of the species we studied, viability of seeds is maintained after 6-months kept in conventional seed banking conditions. Although care still needs to be taken to ensure high initial viability prior to storing. Our initial result gives hope to those within the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership with the capacity to practice conventional seed banking methods to incorporate orchids within their seed conservation objectives in the future.

References

Faruk, A., Papokyan, A. & Nersesyan, A. (2021) Exploring effective conservation of charistmatic flora: orchids in Armenia as a case study. Diversity. 13: 624. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/d13120624
Hinsley, A., de Boer, H.J., Fay, M.F., Gale, S.W., Gardiner, L.M., Gunasekara, R.S., Kumar, P., Masters, S., Metusala, D., Roberts, D.L., Veldman, S., Wong, S. & Phelps, J. (2018) A review of the trade in orchids and its implications for conservation. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 186: 435-455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/botlinnean/box083
Pence, V.C., Meyer, A., Linsky, J., Gratzfeld, J., Pritchard, H.W., Westwood, M. & Beckman Bruns, E. (2022) Defining exceptional species - a conceptual framework to expand and advance ex situ conservation of plant diversity beyond conventional seed banking. Biological Conservation. 266: 109440. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109440
Zazanashvili, N., Sanadiradze, G., Garforth, M., Bitsadze, M., Manvelyan, K., Askerov, E., Mousavi, M., Krever, V., Shmunk, V., Kalem, S. & Devranoğlu Travsel, S. eds. (2020) Ecoregional Conservation Plan for the Caucasus: 2020 edition. WWF. KfW, Tbilisi. Available at: https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/ecp_2020_part_1_1.pdf (pdf)

Introduction

The Millennium Seed Bank’s current UK tree seed collecting project is titled Diversity Adaptation and Use (2022-2025). The main aim of this project is to continue to capture as much genetic diversity as possible from the UK’s native tree species.

The sampling effort in the UK has been mainly focussed on sampling at least one collection of each native species from ‘tree seed zones’. These ‘seed zones’ were determined by the Forestry Commission (now Forest Research) (Herbert et al., 1999), based on variables, including climate, altitude, soils etc. and barriers including administrative, infrastructural, and geographic (see Figure 1). This enables local communities to have a realistic range to obtain locally sourced tree seeds for local planting and restoration. For our purposes at the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB), by sampling each species in their native seed zones, we hope to capture representative seed samples of as many of the variables as possible that may account for the genetic basis for morphological adaptation and genetic diversity in the populations.

The seeds from this project and those collected in previous projects are used for conservation, restoration and research purposes with partners across the UK. In the current phase of the project, we are now utilising the latest genetic evidence wherever possible to tailor the collecting to particularly genetically diverse or locally adapted populations and prioritise species that are of increased interest for research and restoration.

Aspen

Aspen (Populus tremula) is a dioecious temperate Eurasian tree species, growing up to 25m tall. It has a range extending from east Asia, across to western Europe and the UK. It is an important keystone species in many ecosystems, supporting a range of animals, plants, fungi and lichens (Kouki et al., 2004). It can spread vegetatively by suckering at ground level, forming clonal stands. Genetic analyses of populations has also demonstrated that the species spreads freely by seed, accounting for its rapid colonisation (Myking et al., 2011). It has been well studied in Europe, such that populations in Sweden have been demonstrated to contain genetic variation in the adaptive traits of the species relating to environmental variables such as light and temperature (Luquez et al., 2008).

The MSB holds 33 seed collections from 13 UK populations. These are not evenly distributed and vary in age, quantity, quality, and data. Ideally collecting gaps will be filled in future phases of UK tree seed collecting, with additional collections being made to encompass the range of environmental growing conditions that populations are subjected to. The highest value collections for research and restoration will have seed collected from at least ten individual maternal trees in a population, each with their own unique location (GPS) data recorded. This means that population genetics research can be conducted using the seeds, seedlings and data. These standards have not always followed, however, meaning that we hold historic collections where the maternal tree seeds were mixed into a population, GPS data was not recorded, or was only recorded once for the whole population.

Existing collections were primarily made from the south of England, due to the proximity to the MSB and ease of travel for staff. Although MSB staff do conduct fieldwork away from the southeast, additional collections in the case of aspen are the result of collaboration with partner organisations who collect seed material on our behalf.

Aspen is also one of the early seeding UK native tree species (Myking et al., 2011), with seeds maturing in late spring outside of the main tree seed collecting season, making the species harder to collect alongside other target species. There is also evidence for irregular seed set and masting of this species in the UK (Worrell et al., 1999). These factors may also somewhat account for the reduced number of collections held by the MSB.

The MSB’s UK team was very successful in collecting aspen seed in 2023, as we managed to make three collections in England (seed zone 405) and one in Wales (seed zone 303), with the assistance of our partners at the National Botanic Garden, Wales (see points in red on Figure 1).

The UK map has 5 blue spots on it indicating collections made prior to 2023, these are in seed zones 305, 405, 406 and 201. There is also one on the boundary of 405 and 406. There are also four red dots on the map showing the location of 2023 seed collections, there are 3 within seed zone 405 and one within seed zone 303. — Figure 1: A map of the United Kingdom showing the tree seed zones, with locations for seed collections of aspen stored in the MSB. © OpenStreetMap condtributers, CC-BY-SA, contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2010-2023.

Planning and collecting

We prioritise collecting from sites of ancient woodland in the UK, these are locations where there are records of continuous woodland cover since the 1600s and the trees are more likely to be autochthonous (indigenous) to the area and less likely to have been planted. We work with landowners to gain permissions and to investigate the history of management in the woodland. We frequently utilise public observation data of species in the natural environment, primarily the occurrence data from the Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland (BSBI), but also iNaturalist and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). If sites are protected by national or international legislation, we obtain the appropriate permissions for access and collecting.

One site we identified for naturally occurring aspen populations was Epping Forest, a large area of ancient woodland in the northeast of London and out into Essex. Working with the local City of London rangers, we identified a natural stand of aspen trees. Because the trees were at the stage of natural dispersal, we were able to use a throwline to reach into the canopy from ground level and lightly shake the trees to dislodge catkins, placing a tarpaulin below to catch them as they fell.

A person in a hard hat sitting on a tarpaulin collecting seeds — Owen Blake, Tree Seed Collecting Project Officer, placing *Populus tremula* seeds, collected on a tarpaulin, into paper bags. (Photo: Matthew Jeffery).

Back in the MSB lab

The seeds are held amongst fluffy catkins as a dispersal mechanism, but this means they are quite difficult to extract and involves a multi-step cleaning process. This is applicable to a wide range of seeds held in a similar floccose dispersal unit such as other Salicaceae, and potentially some Asteraceae species. The catkins are placed between two sieves the top one being of an aperture that the seeds cannot pass through (here 300μm), and the lower sieve being of an aperture they can pass thorough without allowing larger debris through (here 900μm). A dish is then placed below, and a vacuum cleaner is applied to the top of the system. This dislodges the seeds from the catkins, and they fall through the lower sieve into the dish when the suction is removed.

A man wearing a lab coat stood at a fume hood holding a vacumn cleaner nozzel over a set of sieves — Matthew Jeffery, UK Tree Seed Collecting Field Officer, applying suction to separate *Populus tremula* seeds from the fluffy catkins (Photo: Owen Blake).

Once the seeds are separated from the majority of the debris, they can be aspirated to remove small debris and empty seeds.

Aspen seed can be very high in germinability, up to 70-95% when fresh, however, due to the seed lacking an endosperm, the viability rapidly declines as they are very small, with little storage and buffering capacity to the changing environmental conditions in a natural environment. Overall, this means they are short-lived, possibly only surviving less than a year in the soil seedbank (Worrell, 1995). This can be extended under controlled conditions i.e. standard seed bank conditions (Worrell et al., 1999), but ultimately will likely require cryogenic conditions for long term storage (Ballesteros & Pence, 2017). This means that aspen seeds need to be processed and stored very quickly upon arrival at the seed bank to maximise their survival, ideally within a few days.

References

Ballesteros, D. & Pence, V.C. (2017) Survival and death of seeds during liquid nitrogen storage: a case study on seeds with short lifespans. Cryoletters. 38: 278-289.
Herbert, R., Samuel, S. & Patterson, G. (1999) Using Local Stock for Planting Native Trees and Shrubs. Practice Note 8. Available at: https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/publications/using-local-stock-for-planting-native-trees-and-shrubs/
Kouki, J., Arnold, K. & Martikainen, P. (2004) Long-term persistence of aspen - A key host for many threatened species - is endangered in old-growth conservation areas in Finland. Journal for Nature Conservation. 12: 41-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2003.08.002.
Luquez, V., Hall, D., Albrechtsen, B.R., Karlsson, J., Ingvarsson, P. & Jansson, S. (2008) Natural phenological variation in aspen (Populus tremula): The SwAsp collection. Tree Genetics and Genomes. 4: 279-292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11295-007-0108-y.
Myking, T., Bøhler, F., Austrheim, G. & Solberg, E.J. (2011) Life history strategies of aspen (Populus tremula) and browsing effects: a literature review. Forestry. 84: 61-71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpq044
Worrell, R. (1995) European aspen (Populus tremula L.): a review with particular reference to Scotland II. Values silviculture and utilization. Available at: http://forestry.oxfordjournals.org/.
Worrell, R., Gordon, A.G., Lee, R.S. & Mcinroy, A. (1999) Flowering and seed production of aspen in Scotland during a heavy seed year. Forestry. 72: 27-34.

Across the MSBP articles this issue come from Jordan, South Africa, Pakistan and the UK.

A composite image of different close ups of the medal. The medal consists of a black circular centre with arabic writing in gold, surrounded by a red eight-pointed ornate star embosed with gold. The medal is attached to a red and black woven ribbon by a gold crown. — King Abdullah II Ibn Al-Hussein medal for Excellence. (Photo: NARC).

Jordan's National Agricultural Research Center (NARC) has been recognised for its significant contribution to research excellence, sustainable agricultural development and job creation, receiving the ‘King Abdullah II Ibn Al-Hussein medal for Excellence’ at a ceremony in Amman on 25^th May.

Timed to coincide with the 78^th anniversary of Jordan’s independence from the UK, His Majesty King Abdullah presented the medal to NARC’s director general, Dr. Nizar Haddad.

The awarding of this medal is an acknowledgement of the role the institute has played in developing Jordan’s agricultural sector through science collaboration with national and international organisations and funders.

The online Jordan Daily, noted Dr Haddad as saying that the award is an endorsement from King Abdullah as well as a great motivator for the institute’s staff working at the cutting edge of Jordan’s agricultural sector.

This year we are witnessing a quarter of a century of on-going collaboration between RBG Kew's Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) and the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). Through this collaboration we have developed a valuable national collection of some 6,637 samples from over 4,600 taxa representing 20% of South Africa’s magnificent flora. Representatives from Government, SANBI Board of Trustees, National universities and voluntary conservation groups joined the SANBI MSB team, their management staff and representatives from the MSB Africa team in celebrating these achievements. We were hosted at SANBI’s Kirstenbosch Botanic Gardens, arguably the most iconic Garden in Africa. We also had a full day workshop on charting a path for the future of the SANBI seed conservation programme in the context of a new National Initiative of Biodiversity Biobanks South Africa. The next milestone will be the commissioning and formal opening of the re-fitted seed bank at Kirstenbosch later this year. We will write a full article for that, but in the meantime, you can follow the work of the fantastic SANBI MSB team in this video.

Pakistan boasts an abundant floral diversity, home to a wide variety of plant species thanks to its diverse climate and ecosystems, ranging from coastal areas and deserts to forests and mountainous regions. This floral richness is a vital natural asset, enhancing the country's ecological health, economic prosperity, and cultural heritage. Notably, the western Himalayan region in Pakistan is a biodiversity hotspot, harbouring numerous endemic plant species, including an abundance of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). The area's varied microclimates and altitudinal gradients further enrich its floral diversity.

Pakistan is considered forest-poor by the FAO, with only 0.05 ha of forest per capita compared to the global average of 1.0 ha. This limited forest cover is exacerbated by factors such as climate change, rapid population growth, and high demand for forest products, all of which put additional pressure on Pakistan’s already scarce forest resources. Many medicinal trees, such as the critically endangered Commiphora wightii, are threatened. A Garfield Weston Foundation funded project in 2020, the Weston Global Tree Seed Bank programme: Conserving Pakistan's rare and threatened medicinal and useful trees and shrubs, aimed to collect seeds of 70 threatened and over-exploited useful tree and shrub species in Pakistan, and in 2023 this target was extended to 90 species.

A desert view with mountains in the background and a road leading into the distance. — In search of MAPs species in the Balochistan province. (Photo: Shakeel Ahmad).

The partnership between the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) and RBG Kew broadened PARC’s focus to include medicinal and aromatic plants and tree seed conservation. Before the funding from the Garfield Weston Foundation from 2020 – 2023, PARC and RBG Kew worked on the MAPs-II project, funded by Arcadia, which supported comprehensive seed collection across Pakistan's diverse ecological regions. The collaboration has facilitated systematic conservation efforts and involved multiple stakeholders, including universities and institutes, fostering national enthusiasm and ownership. Joint expeditions, plant identification, data sharing, and capacity-building workshops have enhanced project effectiveness. Online training sessions by the Kew team have improved stakeholders' skills in seed conservation techniques. PARC plans to expand conservation efforts to other tree groups, ensuring quality plant genetic resources (PGR) handling for global research and development.

A rocky site with a scree slope in the background. There are several brown shrubs in the foreground and a row of greener shrubs behind. A 4x4 car is parked and two men are infront crouched down working with the plants — Seed sampling and herbarium preparation by Afzal Shah and Farood Shah in the mountainous site in Chitral district. (Photo: Shakeel Ahmad).

During the second phase of the MAPs project, around 150 samples were collected representing 106 species, 83 genera and 52 families. This included Tecomella undulata (Endangered), Douepea tortuosa (endemic) and Astragalus species that are either endemic or regionally endemic.

Two men are sitting in the shade below a tree in the desert by the roadside. They are closely looking at something together — Amir Sultan (left) and Hanan Majeed, collect the seed of the medicinally important *Tecomella undulata* (desert teak) in the southern Pakistan region of Balochistan. (Photo: Shakeel Ahmad).

To wrap up the partnership’s active projects, the Plant Genetic Resources Institute at the National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC), Islamabad, recently hosted an on-line/ hybrid seminar on "Sustainable Conservation Practices for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Pakistan." This event gathered experts, stakeholders, and enthusiasts to discuss the urgent need to preserve these vital natural resources amid rising environmental degradation and biodiversity loss.

A man standing at the top of a steep mountain ridge slope. In front of him, a wide and prickly bush of Juniperus species — Afzal Shah stands next to Juniperus bushes in the mountainous region of Sheru Thara valley in Azad Jammu Kashmir. (Photo: Babar Chaudhry).

Key topics included the institute's role in plant biodiversity conservation, collaborative efforts between RBG Kew and PARC, and detailed insights on MAPs collection activities. Challenges in germplasm collection, the commercial potential of medicinal plants, and a gap analysis of genetic resources were also discussed. Additionally, the seminar explored the unique germplasm in Pakistan's northern regions and addressed major threats to plant diversity, emphasising sustainable development practices.

Given the vast amount of work that is still required to safeguard the future of Pakistan’s wild flora, including its medicinal and aromatic plants, it is hoped that additional funding can be secured to continue the highly productive partnership between PARC and RBG Kew.

At the forefront of saving the world’s plants, seed conservation professionals around the globe are seeking opportunities to hone skills and gain deeper knowledge through specialist training.

My name is Charlotte Lawrence, and in January I stepped into this field, and into a new role within the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP); tasked with overseeing a novel scheme that will strive to meet the training needs of our colleagues across the partnership and beyond as the new Training Certification Officer. Prior to this, I was the Senior Ranger at Wakehurst, Kew’s wild botanic garden in Sussex, UK. In my younger years, I completed a BSc in ecology in Scotland and Hawaiʻi, and then went on to work in science interpretation and training.

Having now settled into my new job, I have the pleasure of sharing the latest from the MSBP’s training initiative. We will also take a look at the results of the MSB Partner Questionnaire 2024. Then, you will get a sneak peek at progress on the project that features as the main purpose of my role - RBG Kew’s new seed conservation Trainer Certification Scheme.

MSBP Training Updates

In February we enjoyed hosting 11 trainees for the first of the biannual Technical Attachments; a one week, bespoke, in-person training course held at Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank (MSB). The course was a success! The participants, who represented eight different countries and five continents, came together to learn and gain practical skills in areas such as seed processing and germination testing. This was the first training event I helped to facilitate at the MSB. I witnessed firsthand that, not only do these courses provide high quality training, but also opportunities for knowledge exchange between participants, with a wide range of different experiences and expertise. New professional connections and friendships were made. We look forward to hosting the next Technical Attachment training towards the end of this year.

A group of people in white lab coats listening to a presenter speaking, as they look up from a below-ground room — Participants of this February’s Technical Attachment training, just before entering the underground vault at the MSB. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield).

Three people sit in a row, each one wearing white lab coats and leaning into a fiberglass hood, as they work with seeds and use laboratory equipment — Participants of this February’s Technical Attachment training, carrying out a practical lesson in one of the MSB laboratories. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield).

Meanwhile, preparations are underway for other training courses, including in country courses with MSB partners in Indonesia and Ghana. Then, there is our most comprehensive training delivered at the MSB, the Seed Conservation Techniques (SCT) course. This year’s SCT course, being held in autumn, will be a combination of online lectures, followed by two weeks of in-person training. As with previous years, global interest in the SCT course has far exceeded our capacity to accommodate (expressions of interest for this course are now closed). In addition, new Technical Information Sheets will soon be available on the MSBP website (see question of the quarter) focusing on Seed Bank Risk Management and the shipping of seed collections.

Insights from our partners - the Partner Questionnaire results

Earlier this year, the MSB Partner Questionnaire 2024 was circulated. The results are insightful and are helping us to shape our future training plans.

We learned that most questionnaire respondents want to learn more about seed storage behaviour, including cryopreservation. The MSB, through the Weston Global Tree Seed Bank programme, are preparing to deliver a second plant cryopreservation course in 2025, since the first one piloted in 2023. If you would like to know more, please get in touch at MSBTraining@kew.org .

Most questionnaire respondents (83%) had received some form of MSBP training, or used MSBP resources, over the previous year. Within this, 53% had used online resources, with 40% having attended an SCT course and 40% having received email support. This high use of online resources was also shown in the 2022 partner questionnaire, where 55% of respondents had engaged with us in this way.

A group of people in a natural landscape are gathered around someone delivering training, looking at something small in the trainer’s hand. — Training participants seed collecting in the field at Wakehurst, RBG Kew’s wild botanic garden in Sussex. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield).

A group of people in a laboratory, wearing white lab coats, are huddled around someone at a microscope connected to a screen, who is describing what they see. Behind the group are large windows, showing an area where visitors can view the laboratory from — Training participants cut-testing seeds under the microscope in a MSB lab, viewable by the visiting public. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield).

People in a laboratory wearing white coats work with petri dishes. Two people are laughing together — Thank you to the 11 visitors to this February’s Technical Attachment for your enthusiasm and for making it a great training event. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield).

We were delighted to see that 93% of those who had been through training with the MSBP or used the online resources, indicated that it had impacted their work over the last year, with the remaining 7% indicating this question was not applicable. We will continue to add to our online available resources in addition to training individuals.

When respondents were asked if they would be interested in finding out more about the new scheme to become a certified trainer for the MSBP within their region, 94% said yes. Respondents also indicated that becoming a Kew certified trainer would help with their career or their organisations’ goals, for reasons including potential regional networking opportunities, the ability to provide training in different languages, and alignment with organisational objectives.

A group of people wearing white lab coats are smiling and holding up certificates reading the word “champion” — Everyone received a certificate for being a seed-moisture-content measuring champion at this February’s Technical Attachment training. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield).

The new Trainer Certification Scheme

One key piece of information I have learned since starting my job, is that the significant, global demand for seed conservation training, is not currently being met within or beyond the MSBP. I see the increasing training demand as a reflection of the need to increase seed conservation efforts, in response to global biodiversity loss and the extinction and climate crises.

To address this, the MSBP through the Weston Global Tree Seed Bank programme are launching a scheme that will certify individuals, affiliated with other institutes and organisations, to become Kew trainers in seed conservation techniques. The primary objectives are to increase the training reach and scale, overcoming current barriers, which at present, prevent us from providing training to many with the potential to make a real, positive impact.

In the end, we conserve only what we love. We will love only what we understand. We will understand only what we are taught. Baba Dioum, Senegalese poet.

The scheme also has the potential to generate new, regional networking and collaboration links. Furthermore, by certifying people from across the globe to become trainers, there will be more minds at work, which can result in the creation of novel training opportunities, potentially connecting seed conservation with other related subjects.

With the certification scheme development plans underway, we are on track to pilot the scheme in 2025. If you would like to know more, or perhaps you or a colleague may make a great candidate for the scheme, please do get in touch C.Lawrence2@Kew.org .

A group of people stand in front of a massive piece of outside botanical art. Some people have their hands in the air, others are showing peace signs. Everyone is smiling. — February’s Technical Attachment ended on a high note. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield)

by Dr. Joseph Mireku Asomaning (National Tree Seed Centre, CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, Fumesua-Kumasi)

The FAO (2010) estimates the annual deforestation rate in Ghana at 2.1% per year, which corresponds with an average annual forest loss of 115,000 ha. Deforestation leads to biodiversity loss, climate change, disruption of water cycles, soil erosion and loss of livelihoods. Ex situ seed conservation is key to afforestation projects in Ghana as it safeguards the conservation of biodiversity, assists ecological restoration, supports adaptation to climate change and supports ongoing research and development efforts in reforestation practices.

Ghana’s National Tree Seed Centre (NTSC) which is managed by the Council for Scientific Research-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (CSIR-FORIG) was officially commissioned in 2017. The NTSC houses two cold rooms operating at -10°C and 5°C respectively. These serve as the seed bank.

Looking up the trunk of a tall tree into the canopy with a tree climber over half way up the trunk — A tree climber climbing for seed collecting. (Photo: Padmore Ansah Boateng).

A tree climber on the forest floor wearing a climbing harness and attached to ropes via carabiners — A tree climber preparing for seed collecting. (Photo: Padmore Ansah Boateng).

The core mandate of the NTSC is to supply high quality, genetically superior and adequate germplasm for forest plantation activities in the country. Some of the specific tasks of the NTSC include:

Seed collecting, extraction, testing and storage
Conducting seed research
Identification, documentation, establishment, management and protection of seed sources
Provision of training and advisory services to our clients
Collaboration with relevant stakeholders and international partners

A selection of large oval shaped seeds laid out on a sheet. They are dark brown in colour — Fruits of *Entandrophragma utile* being dried in the shade to split open for seed extraction. (Photo: Joseph Mireku Asomaning).

A spreadsheet with columns for botanical name, local name, and then each month of the year running from January to December. For each of the botanical names the months of the year cells are colour coded — A phenological chart of major species of Ghana compiled and displayed at the NTSC to guide seed collecing activities. (Photo: Joseph Mireku Asomaning).

Being the leading supplier of seeds for forest plantings in the country, our yearly seed collecting programme begins with the monitoring of our seed sources for flowering, fruiting and maturity guided by a phenological chart designed for our most important economic/ plantation species as well as endangered and endemic species. These species include Khaya ivorensis, Khaya anthotheca, Triplochiton sceleroxylon, Terminalia ivorensis, Terminalia superba, Nauclea diderrichii, Milicia excelsa, Mansonia altissima, Pericopsis elata, Tetrapleura tetraptera, Entandrophragma utile, Entandrophragma angolense, Albizia ferruginea and Albizia zygyia. The range of species we collect depends greatly on the requests from our clients including the Forestry Commission, the Ghana Cocobod, large scale Plantation Development Companies, Mining Companies, Schools and Religious groups. The NTSC itself produces around 800,000 seedlings of mostly native species for yearly planting activities in Ghana. On average, the seeds supplied by the NTSC to its numerous clients across the country, produce about 3,000,000 seedlings annually for afforestation and reforestation projects.

Many rows of saplings growing in individuals pots, at least 8 deep in a row. The saplings have their first few leaves — Seedlings of *Pericopsis elata* (a CITES species) growing at the nursery of the NTSC. (Photo: Joseph Mireku Asomaning).

A dense nursery bed of seedlings. The seedlings all have pinnate leaves and are covered by a bamboo shade structure. — Seedlings of *Khaya ivorensis*, an important timber species growing at a farmer’s nursery. Seeds were supplied by the NTSC. (Photo: Joseph Mireku Asomaning).

The NTSC has a laboratory equipped with seed sampling devices, ovens, germination cabinets, electrical conductivity meters and others for seed quality testing and seed research activities. Under Ghana’s Forest Investment Programme, the NTSC recently conducted the mapping and documentation of 52 seed sources across the country and in addition established 69 hectares of seed orchards of various species. The objectives were to ensure the traceability and quality of our collections and to produce high quality seeds for reforestation and afforestation activities in the country.

A white laboratory bench with distinct piles of different seeds laid out in a thin layer. The seeds vary in colour and size — Seeds of some species being dried on the laboratory bench. (Photo: Joseph Mireku Asomaning).

Two seed bank scientists sat at a laboratory bench. On the bench are two laptops and field notes — Two scientists of the NTSC compiling information of seeds prior to their transfer to the MSB for banking. (Photo: Joseph Mireku Asomaning).

Over the years, the NTSC and the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) have had a very strong collaboration culminating in a number of projects such as the Darwin Initiative Research Exercise on Community Tree Seeds (2004-2006), Collecting and domesticating socio-economic wild species of Ghana (2009-2011), the Ghana Seed Banking Project (2011-2013) and the Ghana Seed Conservation Project (2019-2023). Ghana currently has 124 of its native species stored at the Seed Bank of the NTSC with duplicates being held at the Millennium Seed Bank.

A metal shelving unit housing rows of kilner jars of different sizes each full of seeds and labelled. The seeds are a wide range of colours and shapes. — Seeds in storage in airtight bottles at the cold room of the NTSC. Duplicates of these species are in storage at the MSB. (Photo: Padmore Ansah Boateng).

Since 2003, the NTSC has received numerous opportunities from the MSBP in the form of technical training, technical advice, proposal writing, project execution, equipment donation and PhD training. The trainings we have received from the MSBP have expanded our practical competencies in important issues in seed conservation such as:

Assessing a potential seed collection
Seed collecting techniques
Post-harvest handling of collections
Seed moisture and principles of seed drying
Identifying desiccation-sensitive seeds
Selecting containers for long-term storage
Construction of moisture sorption isotherms for seeds

Projects being implemented currently at the NTSC include: The Ghana Seed Conservation Project (funded by RBG Kew); Recovery and Conservation of the Critically Endangered Aubregrinia taiensi (funded by Botanic Gardens Conservation International, UK); the Tree Conservation Action Plan for Ghana (funded by Franklinia Foundation) and the Production of High Quality Bamboo Seedlings for Land Restoration (funded by EcoPlanet, USA). Staff at the NTSC have expertise in diverse areas such as seed science, plant genetics and tree breeding, plant science, tree nursery management, plant taxonomy, plant pathology and Geographic Information Systems. The NTSC has three well-trained tree climbers who are crucial for seed collection activities. Facilities at the NTSC include: a seed extraction shed, a 600,000 capacity tree seedling nursery, three plant houses, a seed testing laboratory with the basic seed testing equipment, two cold rooms, a conference room for meetings and trainings, a 150 KVA diesel generator and two pickup trucks for field activities.

Article by Clare Callow (MSBP, RBG Kew) and Vonona Randrianasolo (KMCC, RBG Kew)

Cryptocarya R.Br. is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs belonging to the Lauraceae family. Most commonly found as canopy and sub-canopy trees growing up to 30m, their seeds are dispersed by birds (and lemurs in Madagascar).

With a wide distribution across tropical and sub-tropical continents, Cryptocarya is recognised as having 359 species, of which 43 are endemic to Madagascar. 15 of the Madagascar Cryptocarya are currently listed as Critically Endangered (CR) on the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species.

In Madagascar the trees are often some of the tallest to be found in the forest. Some species have very fragrant leaves and bark, while others do not. All species have fragrant, citrus-scented seeds containing a beautiful endosperm inside a fleshy fruit, the exterior of which is dark red when ripe.

Hands holding a branch of Cryptocarya with abundant lush green leaves. The leaves are lanceolate and recurve slightly towards the tip. — Freshly cut and ready to make a herbarium voucher. (Photo: Clare Callow).

A branch of Cryptocarya with leaves and green fruits laid out as herbarium specimen on newspaper labelled 'CLW 7' — Herbarium voucher ready for drying at the new KMCC office. (Photo: Clare Callow).

Dried branch of Crypocaraya thouvenotii with brown leaves taped to a rectangular sheet of cardboard; the herabarium specimen label reads 'H. van der Werff, S. Malcomber, B. Gray & S. Rapanarivo 12698 Lauraceae Cryptocaraya thouvenotii (Danguy) Kosterm. Det. H. van der Werff (MO), 1998 Missouri Botanical Garden Herbarium (MO) Madagascar — Herbarium voucher ready for drying at the new KMCC office. (Photo: Clare Callow).

The underside of a Cryptocarya leaf, elongated and ovular, displaying distinct dark green/yellow veins — Demonstrating variation between species. (Photo: Clare Callow).

A question arose about the seed storage behaviour of Cryptocarya from Madagascar at the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) a couple of years ago. According to Wyse and Dickie (2017), Lauraceae are likely to bear desiccation-sensitive seeds; however, there is a distinct lack of data on the Malagasy tree flora in general, and in particular on the seed storage behaviour of Lauraceae from Madagascar. We wanted to investigate whether or not the seeds of the Madagascan Cryptocarya trees are desiccation-sensitive, whether there is any inter-specific variation, and ultimately whether the Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre (KMCC) and Silo National des Graines Forestières (SNGF) collecting teams in Madagascar should continue to duplicate collections of Cryptocarya to the MSB, or whether it is more important for us to find alternative methods of conserving the seeds of Cryptocarya trees.

At the beginning of our investigation there were 27 collections from Madagascar held at the MSB, 15 of which had not yet been identified to species level. 16 of these collections had been removed from active management (RAM – retained as dried samples in cold storage conditions but believed to have no viable seeds). As a first step all remaining Cryptocarya collections at the MSB underwent viability testing, and unfortunately none showed any material level of viability.

As part of the Weston Global Tree Seed Bank (GTSB): Unlocked – Madagascar programme, we aim to build the capacity of our partner organisation in Madagascar, SNGF, as part of the work towards our overall goal to further develop capacity for the conservation and restoration of Madagascar’s globally important biodiverse forests. Towards this aim new staff at SNGF working with our programme will now undertake the 100-seed test on any of the collections we make for the GTSB which are predicted to be recalcitrant. They can then publish the data which will feed into tools such as the Wyse and Dickie recalcitrance predictor, thereby improving its accuracy, benefitting everyone who might use it.

For the Cryptocarya, in order to determine seed storage behaviour, we had to collect some fresh seed to start the tests at SNGF. In December, a team from the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) in the UK, KMCC and SNGF went to Montagne Des Français in the north of Madagascar where a Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) search shows many collections of Cryptocarya, from possibly three different species. The data we hold on collections made by previous KMCC and SNGF teams suggests these trees seeds should have been ready to collect in December, just before the wet season. We followed the GPS coordinates and found the trees we were looking for, only one species, many trees – tens to hundreds, in two different populations, none of which bore a single fruit or flower! Do these trees bear fruit only once every few years? Has the phenology changed because of the rapidly changing climate in this part of the world? Which species were the trees? This trip raised more questions than it answered, so in April we planned a trip to a more humid area slightly further south, Montagne d’Ambre which is managed by Madagascar National Parks. Here there had been many more collections of Cryptocarya recorded from a further three species. Climate change scuppered our plans once again – this time by providing northern Madagascar with a ferocious cyclone (Cyclone Gamane) which destroyed the crossing over the Mahavavy River and made most of the north of Madagascar inaccessible. Disappointing to us, much more serious for those who lived on the north side of the river where food prices spiked. We changed our plans and instead went to the humid forest managed by the community in the Moramanga District – Antavolobe – which literally translates as ‘the place of many Tavolo’ (Tavolo is the vernacular name for most Cryptocarya in Malagasy). On arrival at the site, we met with our two incredibly knowledgeable guides from the VOI (Vondron'Olona Ifotony) - local community associations in Madagascar that play a key role in the conservation of the island's environment and natural resources. The guides informed us that this small section of forest contained at least 17 species of Cryptocarya. Within an hour of leaving the car we had found an individual Cryptocarya (species unknown) bearing thousands of fruit, half of which were ready. We made a massive collection and split it into two, separating the green and red fruits. Within a couple of hours we had found at least six other species, most of which bore fruit but no more were ripe. Over the next two days we found all but one of the 17 species the guides had mentioned, made a herbarium voucher and took DNA samples from all of them, along with lots of photos and their co-ordinates. More questions arose from this mission than were answered – why do some species bear fruit in April, but others aren’t ready until September/October? Could we perhaps identify to species level by looking at the shape of the seed? Why do these trees speciate within such a small area? Why were there no seedlings growing under the tree which bore so many ripe fruit? What was the dispersal mechanism, and was it not working? How can we ensure we adhere to the MSB’s seed conservation standards for sampling calculations and ensuring genetic diversity of our collections, when, more often than not, there is only one individual of a species within a 15km radius?

Two men crouching down over a sack on the floor with a pile of round fruits on. The fruits vary in colour from green to greeny/red — Roger Rakotonandrasana (VOI guide) and Eric Rakotoniaina (KMCC technician) in Antavolobe sorting a collection of Cryptocarya fruits. (Photo: Clare Callow).

Close-up of a pile of small round Cryptocarya fruits being sorted by hand, the fruits vary in colour from olive gree to a deep red. — Colour variation of Cryptocarya fruits. (Photo: Clare Callow).

A man stood at the edge of a group of trees. He is holding a pole pruner up into the canopy of the tree — Vonona Randrianasolo collects a voucher from a riverine species of Cryptocarya on the edge of agricultural land bordering Antavolobe. (Photo: Clare Callow).

According to local community information, mammals, including lemurs, bats and rodents, consume Cryptocarya fruits and thus spread their seeds, complementing the role of fruit-eating birds in the spread of these trees. The leaves and wood of Cryptocarya are used in traditional Malagasy medicine to treat various ailments and its wood is also used for construction and furniture making.

A whole green Cryptocarya fruit and two cross-section slices revealing the intricate endosperm inside a fleshy fruit resembling the convolutions of a brain. The piece of paper they're on is labelled 'CLW 01' — Taking a look inside the seeds. (Photo: Clare Callow).

We dried the herbarium vouchers at the new KMCC office on our return to Antananarivo and took the seed collection to SNGF where the 100-seed test is now underway on both the red and green collections. We took the herbarium vouchers to the Tsimbazaza Herbarium (TAN) herbarium at Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (PBZT) where even more questions were raised – why were we only able to definitively identify two of our 16 species? Why were some vouchers identified as the same species so completely different from one another?

This work encompasses many of the challenges with the Weston Global Tree Seed Bank: Unlocked programme in Madagascar – uncertain taxonomy, limited data on seed storage behaviour, challenges associated with the collection of tree seeds including site access, unpredictable phenology, small population sizes and lack of resources for the work. However, it also highlights the importance of the work we are undertaking, to build the capacity of our partner organisation, to improve tools to aid species identification, build a deeper understanding of restoration ecology and to engage with local communities.

Two people stood next to a wooden bench. On the bench is a metal tray with a folder of herbarium specimens they are examining — Clare Callow and Eric Rakotoniaina at the TAN herbarium at PBZT. (Photo: Vonona Randianasolo).

References

Wyse, S.V. and Dickie, J.B. (2017) Predicting the global incidence of seed desiccation sensitivity. Journal of Ecology. 105: 1082-1093.

This article is available in both english and spanish.

Este artículo está disponible en inglés y español.

How did your interest in plant conservation begin?

My interest in plant conservation began when I started studying as an Agronomist and had the opportunity to be part of the Department of Horticulture at JBN, where I began to work with the germination and reproduction of plants for conservation purposes.

Wilkin points to a piece of equipment in the laboratory used for cleaning seeds — Wilkin Encarnación. (Photo: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

What was one of the most satisfying moments in your seed conservation work?

I think it gave me great satisfaction to have witnessed and contributed to the development of the JBN Seed Bank, as well as thinking about my personal career in the institution.

I joined the JBN as a volunteer after finishing university, where I studied Agronomy, and then I was offered a job to help with the cultivation of some species in the garden. When I started, the Seed Bank was still very small: hence, being able to actively participate in its expansion and growth has been very exciting, including seeing how the Bank has developed the capacity to offer support and training to other seed banks and different institutions in Santo Domingo.

The entrance to the seed bank, with Banco de Semillas, written on the wall above an ornate pillared archway — JBN Seed Bank. (Photo: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

The JBN Seed Bank is getting involved in different projects with different institutions. Could you give us some examples?

Currently, the JBN is collaborating with the National Business Support Network for Environmental Protection (ECORED), the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources, and the German Development Cooperation (GIZ) for the project Red List Rescue Mission, Alliance for Biodiversity and Conservation, which aims to contribute to the conservation of endangered species of the Dominican flora.

Many rows of jars full of various seeds sit on shelving — The cold room at JBN. (Photo: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

Another collaboration, is with the National Fund for the Environment and Natural Resources (Marena Fund) for the conservation of the iconic endemic and critically endangered species Leuenbergeria quisqueyana (formerly known as Pereskia quisqueyana), commonly known as the Rose of Bayahibe. The JBN has pledged to propagate approximately 4,000 seedlings of this species to contribute to its conservation.

The JBN also has a project for the conservation of threatened plants in the Ébano Verde Scientific Reserve, in the province of La Vega, and in the Municipality of Constanza, in collaboration with the Moscoso Puello Foundation.

JBN is also starting a new phase of a project with the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, funded by the Garfield Weston Foundation and in collaboration with the Moscoso Puello Foundation and the Progressio Foundation, that aims to conserve and restore the threatened Magnolia forests in the Dominican Republic.

Rows of Magnolia plants being propagated in a greenhouse, at various stages of development — Propagation of threatened Magnolia. (Photo: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

Could you tell us about some species you are working with and the experiments you are doing? Moreover, could you also add some information about some of the plants that are being propagated at JBN?

I am doing germination trials with two main species, the "Star Anise" (Illicium ekmanii), and the "Brown Abbe" (Alvaradoa haitiensis), to later be able to publish the results in the "Moscosoa" Journal. The seeds have been germinated at 20°C and 25°C with a photoperiod of 12/12 hours.

We are also working with some species included in a project with ECORED for the conservation of threatened species, and we are mainly propagating species included in the Red List of the Vascular Flora of the Dominican Republic, listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Species currently being propagated at JBN on the Red List of the Vascular Flora of the Dominican Republic.
Scientific name	Common name	Conservation status (Red List of Santo Domingo)
Mora abbottii	Cola	Endangered (EN)
Carapa guianensis	Cabirma de guinea	EN
Melicoccus jimenezii	Cotoperi	Critically Endangered (CR)
Simarouba berteroana	Olive tree	Vulnerable (VU)
Amyris elemifera	Guaconejo	EN
Chrysophyllum cainito	Caimito	EN
Pimenta racemosavar	Ozua	EN
Tabebuia polyantha	Palo de Yuca	EN
Juglans jamaicensis	Walnut	CR
Mammea americana	Mamey	EN
Leuenbergeria quisqueyana	Rose of Bayahibe	CR
Hernandia sonora	Magá colorada	CR
Pimenta haitiensis	Canelilla	EN

Most of the plants propagated at JBN are used for conservation programmes and for projects for the maintenance and expansion of urban green areas, but they are also donated for educational projects with schools. In some cases, such as for Portlandia grandiflora, an ornamental species introduced to Santo Domingo, the plants are propagated for commercial sale.

What are some of the main difficulties and strengths of seed conservation in Santo Domingo?

One of the main challenges for plant conservation in Santo Domingo is to collect seeds from natural plant populations that are affected by deforestation, overexploitation, and illegal trade. Additionally, it is very difficult to have resources available to acquire labour and materials for seed collection and conservation. However, luckily the Ministry of the Environment takes the conservation of Santo Domingo's natural resources very seriously, getting involved with different conservation projects, supporting provincial nurseries that propagate native tree species, forest seed banks such as the Nigua seed bank ("Endemic and Native Seed Bank of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources", BSN), and botanical gardens, such as the Botanical Garden of Santiago (JBS), partially funded by the Ministry of the Environment.

In general, there is a good network of collaborations between different institutions for the conservation of the native forests of Santo Domingo, and the JBN offers consultancies, workshops, and advice on techniques for collecting, propagating, and conserving seeds. For example, the JBN supports the JBS by organising collective fieldwork and offering tips for seed conservation, since the JBS is also beginning long-term seed storage through refrigerated vans that are used as cold rooms.

Michael Way holding a foil bag of seeds in the cold room. Boxes of many similar foil bags can be seen stored on shelves behind — Michael Way (RBG Kew), in the cold room at JBN. (Photo: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

We heard your family has some bee hives. From your perspective, are bees good indicators of environmental changes?

My family has twelve years of experience in beekeeping, and we have twenty-three hives on a seven-hectare farm. Maintaining beehives on the farm has not only given us the ability to produce honey, but we have also increased the availability of pollinators.

Bees can certainly be considered good indicators of environmental changes, because they are very sensitive to changes in climatic conditions and pollution.

For instance, in periods of drought in which plants produce less pollen, bees’ diet needs to be supplemented with other food sources, such as sugar. Deforestation can also affect bees, in fact it exposes hives to direct sunlight, while they should be kept in areas moderately shaded by trees. In addition, rising temperatures due to climate change favour Varroa destructor, a mite that parasitises bees, so extra monitoring is needed in warmer seasons. Finally, bees are heavily affected by insecticides, which is why the Ministry of the Environment is trying to reduce permits for their use.

And finally, if you could be a seed which one would you be and why?

If I were a seed, I would like to be a seed of a native tree commonly known as "Caracolí" or "Doll’s Eye" (Jupunba glauca), because it has a very pretty colour, blue and white, and because it can be easily extracted from the dehiscent fruits.

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¿Cómo comenzó su interés por la conservación de plantas?

Mi interés por la conservación de plantas comenzó cuando empecé a estudiar la carrera de Ingeniero Agrónomo y tuve la oportunidad de formar parte del Departamento de Horticultura del JBN, donde comencé a trabajar con la germinación y reproducción de plantas con fines de conservación.

Wilkin Encarnación señala un equipo en el laboratorio utilizado para limpiar semillas — Wilkin Encarnación. (Créditos: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

¿Cuál fue uno de los momentos más satisfactorios en su trabajo de conservación de semillas?

Creo que me dio gran satisfacción haber sido testigo y haber contribuido al desarrollo del Banco de Semillas del JBN, así como pensar en mi carrera personal dentro de la institución.

Me uní al JBN como voluntario después de terminar la universidad, donde estudié Agronomía, y luego me ofrecieron un puesto de trabajo para ayudar con el cultivo de algunas especies en el jardín. Cuando comencé, el Banco de Semillas era aún muy pequeño; por lo tanto, poder participar activamente en su expansión y crecimiento ha sido muy emocionante, incluyendo ver cómo el Banco ha desarrollado la capacidad de ofrecer apoyo y capacitación a otros bancos de semillas y diferentes instituciones en Santo Domingo.

La entrada al banco de semillas, titulada “Banco de Semillas”, sobre un arco con pilares ornamentados — JBN Banco de semillas. (Créditos: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

El Banco de Semillas del JBN está involucrado en diferentes proyectos con diversas instituciones. ¿Podría darnos algunos ejemplos?

Actualmente, el JBN está colaborando con a Red Nacional de Apoyo Empresarial a la Protección Ambiental (ECORED), el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, y a Cooperación Alemana para el Desarrollo (GIZ) para el proyecto "Misión Rescate Lista Roja, Alianza por la Biodiversidad y la Conservación", que tiene como objetivo contribuir a la conservación de especies en peligro de extinción de la flora dominicana.

Muchas filas de frascos llenos de diversas semillas se encuentran en estanterías — Cuarto frío de colecciones de semillas. (Créditos: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

Otra colaboración es con el Fondo Nacional para el Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (Fondo Marena) para la conservación de la icónica especie endémica y en peligro crítico de extinción Leuenbergeria quisqueyana (anteriormente conocida como Pereskia quisqueyana), comúnmente conocida como la Rosa de Bayahibe. El JBN se ha comprometido a propagar aproximadamente 4,000 plántulas de esta especie para contribuir a su conservación.

El JBN también tiene un proyecto para la conservación de plantas amenazadas en la Ébano Verde Scientific Reserve, en la provincia de La Vega, y en el municipio de Constanza, en colaboración con la Fundación Moscoso Puello.

El JBN también está comenzando una nueva fase de un proyecto con los Jardines Botánicos Reales de Kew, financiado por la Fundación Garfield Weston y en colaboración con la Fundación Moscoso Puello y la Fundación Progressio, que tiene como objetivo conservar y restaurar los bosques de Magnolia amenazados en la República Dominicana.

Filas de plantas de Magnolia siendo propagadas en un invernadero, en varias etapas de desarrollo — Propagación de Magnolia amenazada. (Créditos: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

¿Podría hablarnos sobre algunas especies con las que está trabajando y los experimentos que está realizando? Además, ¿podría también añadir información sobre algunas de las plantas que se están propagando en el JBN?

Estoy realizando pruebas de germinación con dos especies principales, el "Anís Estrellado" (Illicium ekmanii) y el "Palo de Cruz" (Alvaradoa haitiensis), para luego poder publicar los resultados en la revista "Moscosoa". Las semillas han sido germinadas a 20°C y 25°C con un fotoperiodo de 12/12 horas.

También estamos trabajando con algunas especies incluidas en un proyecto con ECORED para la conservación de especies amenazadas, y estamos propagando principalmente especies incluidas en la Lista Roja de la Flora Vascular e la República Dominicana, enumeradas en la siguiente tabla 1.

Tabla 1: Especies que actualmente se están propagando en JBN y incluidas en la Lista Roja de la Flora Vascular de la República Dominicana.
Nombre científico	Nombre común	Estado de Conservación (Lista Rojas e la República Dominicana)
Mora abbottii	Cola	En Peligro(EN)
Carapa guianensis	Cabirma de guinea	EN
Melicoccus jimenezii	Cotoperi	Criticamente amenazada (CR)
Simarouba berteroana	Olive tree	Vulnerable (VU)
Amyris elemifera	Guaconejo	EN
Chrysophyllum cainito	Caimito	EN
Pimenta racemosavar	Ozua	EN
Tabebuia polyantha	Palo de Yuca	EN
Juglans jamaicensis	Walnut	CR
Mammea americana	Mamey	EN
Leuenbergeria quisqueyana	Rose of Bayahibe	CR
Hernandia sonora	Magá colorada	CR
Pimenta haitiensis	Canelilla	EN

La mayoría de las plantas propagadas en el JBN se utilizan para programas de conservación y para proyectos de mantenimiento y expansión de áreas verdes urbanas, pero también se donan para proyectos educativos con escuelas. En algunos casos, como el de Portlandia grandiflora, una especie ornamental introducida en Santo Domingo, las plantas se propagan para la venta comercial.

¿Cuáles son algunas de las principales dificultades y fortalezas de la conservación de semillas en Santo Domingo?

Uno de los principales desafíos para la conservación de plantas en Santo Domingo es recolectar semillas de poblaciones naturales de plantas que están afectadas por la deforestación, la sobreexplotación y el comercio ilegal. Además, es muy difícil contar con recursos disponibles para adquirir mano de obra y materiales para la recolección y conservación de semillas. Sin embargo, afortunadamente el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente toma muy en serio la conservación de los recursos naturales de Santo Domingo, involucrándose en diferentes proyectos de conservación, apoyando viveros provinciales que propagan especies de árboles nativos, bancos de semillas forestales como el banco de semillas de Nigua ("Banco de Semillas Endémicas y Nativas del Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales", BSN), y jardines botánicos, como el Jardín Botánico de Santiago (JBS), financiado parcialmente por el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.

En general, existe una buena red de colaboraciones entre diferentes instituciones para la conservación de los bosques nativos de Santo Domingo, y el JBN ofrece consultorías, talleres y asesoramiento sobre técnicas de recolección, propagación y conservación de semillas. Por ejemplo, el JBN apoya al JBS organizando trabajos de campo colectivos y ofreciendo consejos para la conservación de semillas, ya que el JBS también está comenzando el almacenamiento de semillas a largo plazo mediante furgones refrigerados que se utilizan como cámaras frigoríficas.

Michael Way de RBG Kew sostiene una bolsa de papel de aluminio con semillas almacenadas en el cuarto frío durante un recorrido por el banco de semillas. Se pueden ver cajas con muchas bolsas similares de papel de aluminio almacenadas en estantes detrás. — Michael Way en el cuarto frío.(Créditos: Silvia Bacci, RBG Kew).

Hemos oído que su familia tiene algunas colmenas. Desde su perspectiva, ¿son las abejas buenos indicadores de cambios ambientales?

Mi familia tiene doce años de experiencia en apicultura, y tenemos veintitrés colmenas en una finca de siete hectáreas. Mantener colmenas en la finca no solo nos ha dado la capacidad de producir miel, sino que también hemos aumentado la disponibilidad de polinizadores.

Las abejas ciertamente pueden considerarse buenos indicadores de cambios ambientales, porque son muy sensibles a los cambios en las condiciones climáticas y la contaminación.

Por ejemplo, en períodos de sequía en los que las plantas producen menos polen, la dieta de las abejas necesita ser suplementada con otras fuentes de alimento, como azúcar. La deforestación también puede afectar a las abejas, ya que expone las colmenas a la luz solar directa, mientras que deberían mantenerse en áreas moderadamente sombreadas por árboles. Además, el aumento de las temperaturas debido al cambio climático favorece a Varroa destructor, un ácaro que parasita a las abejas, por lo que se necesita un monitoreo adicional en las temporadas más cálidas. Finalmente, las abejas se ven muy afectadas por los insecticidas, razón por la cual el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente está tratando de reducir los permisos para su uso.

Y finalmente, si pudiera ser una semilla, ¿cuál sería y por qué?

Si fuera una semilla, me gustaría ser la de un árbol nativo que llaman comunemente “Caracolí” o “Ojo de muñeca”"Caracolí" or "Doll’s Eye" (Jupunba glauca), porque tiene semillas muy bonitas, de color azul y blanco, que se extraen facilmente de los frutos dehiscentes.

Confused about shipping seed collections or unsure about risk management for seed banks?

On the MSBP website we already have a wide variety of resources available covering various aspects of seed conservation and banking. There are 16 technical information sheets that cover everything from seed collecting techniques through to seed bank design and comparative longevity testing. During recent updates to the technical information sheets, and through frequently asked questions, two new technical information sheets have been produced covering the shipping of seed collections and risk management for seed banks.

Shipping seed collections

This technical information sheet provides guidance on how to send plant material legally and safely. The information within is applicable to shipping seed collections in general, although the sheet goes into specific details for shipping seeds to the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB).

The guidance follows the steps that need to be taken to ensure seeds are safely stored in another location. It covers:

planning when to send collections
what to send
how to prepare the shipment
how to contact the MSB to make them aware
how to prepare any required documentation
tips on packaging the shipment
the best options for sending the collection

Screenshot of the front of the Shipping technical information sheet. (Photo: RBG, Kew).

Risk management for seed banks

This technical information sheet focuses on the management of seed banking facilities. How to ensure that the collections you hold are properly cared for, and that anything with the potential to cause damage to the seed collections is addressed.

It begins by summarising risks and hazards and outlining all the relevant terminology you might come across in thinking about risk management for your seed bank. It then guides the reader through how to identify risks, create a risk register and an emergency plan, using casestudies from the MSB and SANBI to illustrate the benefits of having different aspects of this process in place.

Screenshot of the front of the Risk management for seed banks technical information sheet. (Photo: RBG, Kew).

Issue 8: March 2024

In this issue we hear about field adventures in India, the UK and Sweden, as well as about lab studies being undertaken at the MSB by three student interns. This editions 'An interview with...' features Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido from the Alexander von Humboldt Institute Biological Resources Institute in Colombia (article available in English and Spanish) and a seed bank profile from the Wild Plant Seed Bank of Thailand. Finally, we look at the impacts of repeated freezing and defrosting of seeds in question of the quarter.

A petri dish with germinating seeds on filter paper — Germinating seeds of *Fraxinus xanthoxyloides*. (Photo: Manisha Thapliyal).

A close up image of 9 seeds arranged in a grid pattern. Some are showing radicle emergence, whilst others have not germinated. — Germinating seeds of *Centaurea nigra*. (Photo: Lee Oliver).

An aerial view of an intact forested slope — Primary forest in Thailand. (Photo: Pramote Triboun).

A peach coloured magnolia flower, with the petals and sepals opened out showing the yellow gynoecium with a few remaining stamen hanging from the edge — *Magnolia coronata*. (Photo: Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido).

Stories from the field and lab this issue explores forest genetic resources of the north-western Himalayan region of India, threatened species conservation in the UK and Arctic species conservation in Sweden.

The Himalayas' wide-ranging biological significance is reflected in its designation as one of 34 global biodiversity hotspots. An enormous hotspot of biological diversity is the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR). With 18,440 plant species, including 1,748 species of medicinal value and 675 species of wild foods, the IHR preserves a great deal of natural diversity. Despite this, it is acknowledged that the Himalayan ecosystem is among the most susceptible to the effects of anthropogenic perturbations and climate change. As a result of global climate change the hazards to forest ecosystems grow and the need to protect the Forest Genetic Resources (FGR) and genetic diversity has become paramount. Delay or failure to do so could result in the extinction of many species.

The Global Plan of Action for the conservation, sustainable use and development of forest genetic resources (2014) identifies 27 strategic priorities grouped into four areas: 1) improving the availability of, and access to information on FGR; 2) conservation of FGR (in situ and ex situ); 3) sustainable use, development and management of FGR; 4) policies, institutions and capacity-building. The Forest Research Institute implemented a research programme on the creation of a centre of excellence in Forest Genetic Resources. Under this, the populations of prioritized FGR species were explored, seed sources were identified and geo-tagged then their seeds were collected at maturity. Ex situ conservation of the species was carried out through processed, quality-evaluated and desiccated seed in a seedbank. Under the programme, 100 species were prioritized based on their ecological and economic importance, as well as many threatened species and some endemic (Pittosporum eriocarpum) and native species. Explorations were carried out for locating their seed sources, fruits were collected at optimal maturity, seeds were extracted, cleaned and all their morphological parameters such as length, width, thickness, colour, etc. recorded, thereafter their germination and vigour were evaluated.

Shelving inside a cold room holding labelled crates filled with vacuum sealed foil bags holding seed collections. — Processed seed samples of various FGR species in the seed bank for long-term conservation. (Photo: Shweta Rawat).

Tree and shrub seeds are often characterised by various kinds of dormancies owing to their morphology or internal tissues which hamper the process of germination eg. seeds of Acer, Carpinus spp., Buxus wallichiana, Corylus jacquemontii, Fraxinus xanthoxyloides. In order to overcome dormancy and speed up the germination, pretreatments including hot water soaking, mechanical scarification, and application of germination promoting hormones were used as per the requirement. Seeds exhibiting orthodox storage physiology were then desiccated to safe moisture levels (5-6%) using silica gel, tested for viability and then vacuum sealed in triple-layered aluminium bags. After that, seed samples with complete passport data were deposited in India’s National Seedbank at the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi for long-term conservation of germplasm at -18°C. Thus, through this conservation programme the valuable germplasm of FGR species of North-Western Himalayan region is conserved in the seedbank for future restoration projects.

A desiccator chamber with a closed bag of seeds inside — Desiccating the seeds to a safe moisture content level. (Photo: Deepika).

References

FAO. (2014) Global plan of action for the conservation, sustainable use and development of forest genetic resources. Rome, Italy.

With more than half of the UK’s flowering plants declining in their geographic range over the last 50 years (State of Nature, 2023) there has never been a more pressing time to protect our native flora. The vast majority of the UK’s bankable native species are conserved in at least one collection at the Royal Botanic Garden Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank. Over the last three years, the UK Threatened Flora Project, funded by Esmée Fairbairn Foundation, has gone one step further to ensure the breadth of genetic diversity is conserved for over 50 threatened taxa by collecting from populations across their geographic ranges.

The project has been realised via a network of partner organisations and collectors without whom it would not have been possible. Despite challenges (from covid and furloughs to staff illness and extreme weather events), we have successfully conserved over 450 seed collections from new populations of target taxa and produced propagation protocols for 12 threatened species.

Screenshot of two pages of a propagation protocol including images, a table and a map of location. — Propagation protocols have been made for twelve species threatened in the UK. The protocols are now available on the Millennium Seed Bank website.

A map outline of Great Britain, with collections marked on in green dots. The dots are spread around Great Britain, with hotspots in northern coastal Scotland, Cumbria, south Wales, south-west England, Norfolk and south-east England. — Map of collections made as part of the UKTF Project.

From Cornwall to Cumbria, seven groups took part in our Seed Collecting Techniques course as well as numerous ad hoc training sessions with individuals to ensure the highest quality seed collections. We hope that the network of collectors brought together to deliver this project will continue to work with us to conserve the UK’s flora in the future.

Jenny holding a cloth seed collecting bag kneeling down a grassy slope. In the background is the sea and the Seven Sisters. — Jenny Peach collecting *Seseli libanotis* (Moon Carrot) in Sussex. (Photo: Steph Miles).

Lizzie stood on a rough grassy slope holding two marker flags. On the ground are many marker flags. — Lizzie Cooke (Plantlife) assessing *Astragalus danicus* (Purple milk vetch) in Yorkshire. (Photo: Jenny Peach).

Tim lying down on the edge of a rock, collecting seeds from a grassy bank underneath the rock. A waterfall flows over the rocks next to him. — Tim Rich searching for Hieracium. (Photo: Naomi Rich).

The Millennium Seed Bank will store these collections indefinitely, making them available for research and conservation. Their viability will be monitored over time. The multi-population samples made as part of this project may be of particular interest for population genetics research in the future.

We are currently seeking funding to continue with the work to ensure the UK’s threatened flora is conserved ex situ and we hope to have some positive news later this year.

**The UK Threatened Flora Project in numbers**
Category	Numbers
Number of collections	450
Number of taxa	260
Number of seeds	Nearly 4 million!
Number of collectors	103
Vice counties collected from	78
Donor organisations	37
Training days	7

In the Autumn of 2023 a team of scientists from Kew joined forces with a team from Gothenburg Botanical Garden to collect seeds from within the Arctic Circle in northern Sweden. The team made 50 collections over the nine days of the trip totalling almost 300,000 seeds conserved.

A film crew from Kew followed their adventures from planning, right through to the seeds arriving at the Millennium Seed Bank. The film is available to watch on YouTube.

A blog post on the trip is also available on the Kew website.

Across the MSBP articles this issue come from the current cohort of MSB interns, Leela, Lee and Elena, who share what they've been working on.

This year at the MSB, we have three interns working on various projects. They are all at different stages in their education, and have taken some time to write a little about the projects they're working on.

Sowing the right seeds for change, by Leela Watt Poddar (RBG Kew Science intern)

In September 2023 I started my internship at the MSB as part of the UK Native Seeds for Restoration project. The work I have been doing aims to predict the thermal thresholds for germination of several grassland species that are native to the UK. Ecosystem restoration is integral to a lot of future conservation work, but with rising temperatures and increased stress experienced by seeds, it is an uphill battle. With germination experiments, we can sift through grassland species to isolate those that show resilience to higher temperatures and, in the grander scheme of things, to climate change. However, as I have come to learn, this is no easy task!

Scorzoneroides autumnalis

I have spent almost every day of the past 5 months with Scorzoneroides autumnalis (L.) Moench (autumn hawkbit), so I have grown quite attached to the species. We have spent many hours sowing, scoring and germinating together. It is with a heavy heart that I cut test them at the end of their germination experiments. Through this process I have come to understand the potential of seed banks as huge resources for increasing the scope and success of conservation. I often imagine the process of scientific enquiry as a paint-by-numbers. The information we collate adheres to theories and methodologies to create a clearer, bigger picture of the natural world. What, then, is the bigger picture here?

Whose extinction?

When I’m asked what a seed bank is, I explain it with words you may have used before: “a global insurance policy”, or “a library of flora”. People often agree that seed banking is important to ensure human survival in the case of global catastrophe. Indeed, the preservation of genetic diversity, and implications for food security motivated the inception of seed banking. But today, the abstract notion of a ‘global catastrophe’ has now transformed into real crises like climate change and biodiversity loss. Seed banking has evolved to safeguard not only against the extinction of crop lines, but of all plant species, their ecosystems and the fungi and fauna that benefit from them. Seed banks now function as an umbrella of protection for the entire biosphere.

The internship

Interning at the MSB has been a dream come true, and the time has flown by so quickly! My internship introduced me to the real world of scientific research, and I now truly appreciate how much time and labour goes into data collection and scientific publications. I have really enjoyed analysing the data from these experiments, especially as it looks likely that autumn hawkbit will survive near-future climate scenarios. This research will be used for my undergraduate dissertation, which will be my focus over the next few months before I graduate from university in Japan. I also had the experience of creating a little bit of social media content with the other interns at the MSB (thank you to everyone who agreed to be filmed!). The MSB has shown me the human elements of science: collaboration, sharing perspectives on wider topics, and that ultimately, the torchbearers for biodiversity protection are amazing people. Thank you for having me!

A seedling standing upright with a light green stalk leading to two bright green unfurling cotyledons. One cotyledon still has the seed coat attached, which is long and dark brown with light yellow tufts at the end. — Stacked focus image of an *S. autumnalis* seedling. Photo: Leela Watt Poddar & Pablo Gómez Barreiro.

Leela wearing a lab coat sat next to a fume hood. She is smiling and holding a petri-dish. The petri dish contains several small germinated seedlings. — Leela with her seedlings! Photo: Elena Fouce Hernandez.

Seed priming of wild UK grassland species at the Millennium Seed Bank to improve germination of aged seeds for restoration, by Lee Oliver (RBG Kew Science intern)

The Millennium Seed Bank provides an invaluable resource for the active conservation of plant biodiversity in a rapidly changing climate. As well as acting as a “Noah’s Arc” for the world’s flora, the MSB facilitates active restoration through the provision of seed to projects around the world. Restoration of diminished ecosystems is a very important method of conservation and relies on a reliable supply of readily germinating wild seeds.

Lee wearing a lab coat sat in front of a fumehood smiling. In the fumehood are plates of germination tests. — Setting up germination tests after imbibition at different water potentials. (Photo: Leela Watt Poddar).

Seed priming has been a widely used seed enhancement technique within the crop industry over the last 50 years. Priming presents itself as a very simple and cost-effective tool that can reliably improve the percentage, uniformity and speed of seed germination, seedling emergence and seedling vigour (Copeland & McDonald, 2001). Priming has also been shown to increase the longevity of low-vigour seeds. Despite this, seed priming remains a neglected technique when it comes to wild species, which can encounter problems with poor germination, emergence and vigour during restoration projects. These issues can be augmented by long term storage - as seeds age, they lose their viability and vigour.

There are many different methods of seed priming that can be employed, but the main idea is to pre-imbibe seeds to a point just before radicle emergence. This activates a chain of chemical reactions, preparing the seeds for fast, vigorous and synchronised germination. The most common methods of imbibition are hydro- and osmo-priming, due to their ease-of-use, low price, and effectiveness. These methods involve submersion of seeds in solutions of water or Polyethylene glycol (PEG) solutions, allowing imbibition to take place. The addition of PEG to a solution changes its water potential, permitting water to be imbibed at a slower rate, reducing the shock which can be induced by rapid imbibition.

UK calcareous and mesotrophic grasslands support a diverse flora and fauna and have high conservation and cultural value. Restoration of these areas is of high interest, with success relying crucially on the rapid and reliable establishment of key species. Pywell et al. (2003) identified species of interest for grassland restoration with a low establishment performance index.

As an intern at the Millennium Seed Bank, I’ve been undertaking a research project focussing on seed priming of these key species for calcareous and mesotrophic grassland restoration. I’ve been investigating how seed priming could be used to improve the germination percentage, uniformity and vigour of wild, heterogenous seed lots, focussing on the amelioration of aged seeds. Species with low performance establishment according to Pywell et al. (2003) were selected, with consideration of the number of seeds available at the MSB, germination time, percentage and dormancy. Data was obtained through Kew’s Integrated Collections Management System (ICMS). The development of seed priming techniques for species of restoration interest has great potential for increasing the overall success of restoration projects.

A close up image of 10 seeds arranged in a grid pattern. Some are showing radicle emergence, whilst others have not germinated. — Common knapweed (*Centaurea nigra*) seeds germinating on agar. (Photo: Lee Oliver).

The Intern CryoSync Experience: how manipulation of the cell cycle may help the cryopreservation of recalcitrant-seeded tree species such as English Oak, by Elena Fouce Hernandez (RBG Kew Science intern)

Against the backdrop of climate change and global warming, significant effort is being put into the conservation of the world’s plant diversity. Seed banking is one such system employed for the preservation of thousands of ecologically and socioeconomically valuable plant species. However, the seeds of some species elude conventional seed banking, for example, by being intolerant to drying and freezing (between -10 and -20°C), which are two critical steps in the ex situ conservation of seeds.

English oak (Quercus robur) is one of these so-called recalcitrant-seeded tree species. As many as 8% of all global plant species and 33% of trees produce recalcitrant seeds. Many of these species reside in tropical evergreen forests that are the lungs of our planet, and in the case of oak trees, they are the one of the most widespread tree genera found in woods and forests across Europe, North Africa, North America, and Asia.

A promising system for banking recalcitrant seeds is cryopreservation, which is a technology that uses ultra-low temperatures, between – 80 and -196°C (using liquid nitrogen) to preserve living cells through the suspension of almost all cellular, metabolic, and biochemical activities, thereby preventing genetic and physical damage during long-term storage. But one cannot just throw a bunch of acorns into liquid nitrogen and then expect them to grow into healthy oak trees when we put them back into normal germinative conditions. Making sure that the seed, or part of the seed survives such an extreme treatment is a crucial aspect of cryobiotechnology, and for that, you need to know which parts of the seed, or plant (propagules), will have a better chance to persevere after their cryopreservation.

In the case of Q. robur the propagule of choice is the embryonic axis, the part of the seed that will grow into the root and shoot. Not just the choice of propagule is important but understanding them to the cellular level may just be key to the successful conservation of viability. This idea is at the heart of the CryoSync Pilot Project.

Orthodox seeds, those that are desiccation and freezing resistant, germinate faster and more homogeneously when the cell cycle phase of the seed is synchronised. CryoSync proposes that the cellular mechanisms underpinning germination are likely to be conserved between orthodox seeds and recalcitrant seeds. If that is the case, by synchronising the cell cycle of the recalcitrant seed propagules we may achieve higher survival rates and improved regeneration after their cryopreservation. One of the ways we may accomplish this cellular cycle synchronisation is by using pro- and antioxidants, thereby exploiting the oxidation/ reduction sensitivities that allow one cell phase to progress into another.

As a research intern in the CryoSync project, I was tasked to assist in the creation of preliminary data for the project. One of my first responsibilities was to go out into the Wakehurst gardens and collect our recalcitrant seed of choice: acorns from Quercus robur, which can be found all around the Millennium Seed Bank. After cleaning and processing, I had to determine the average size and mass of the seeds, their moisture content, and water uptake rates, and scour the scientific literature to find appropriate starting concentrations of pro- and antioxidants for our experiments. These steps are necessary, as they would form the basis for how much and how long we would treat the seeds and embryonic axes with such chemicals, namely hydrogen peroxide, ascorbic acid (i.e. vitamin C), and glutathione.

A composite of four images. The first shows an acorn with the top removed in a small metal dish on a metal weighing balance. The second is an acorn cut in half longitudinally showing the embryo axis at the top. The third shows a metal tray consisting of small compartments in a 5 by 8 grid, 25 of the compartments contain an acorn. The final image shows the brown embryonic axis of the an acorn held with tweezers which has a short radicle emerging — English Oak acorns in different setups for experiments: weight and moisture content measurements, embryonic axis excision, and germinated acorn tissue excision. (Photo: Elena Fouce Hernandez).

Another important aspect of my project was optimising a method for the rapid and aseptic excision of intact embryonic axes of the seeds. Understanding the anatomy of your seed is crucial. Every seed species is different, so one needs to take time to become acquainted with its physicality: for example, how much force do I need to put into puncturing the pericarp? How much of the cotyledon can I cut to simplify the excision of the embryonic axis? And most importantly, how do I identify the embryo and make sure I don’t damage it during the extraction? And indeed, practice is the key to answering such questions.

Alongside the Principal Investigator of the project, Davide Gerna, I set up imbibition treatments with the aforementioned pro- and antioxidants for both whole seeds and their excised embryos. We then used them for germination tests and in vitro culturing, respectively, and monitored the effect of such ministrations on their viability and traits. Because excised embryos have been deprived of their nutritional tissue, they need to grow on a specific medium in petri dishes or test tubes which contain all the relevant nutrients and molecules for their growth. Fungi love growing on such media, especially those associated with tree seeds, and often our cultured embryonic axes would be smothered with mould, which can be an issue as it can affect the growth and survival of the plant and interferes with phenotyping and monitoring of our tests.

Three test tubes each with in vitro culture and an oak embryonic axis. In the first test tube there is purple layer of fungal contamination, in the second a radicle is just starting to emerge and in the third the radicle is well developed and a shoot is starting to appear — English Oak embryonic axes regenerated in vitro in different stages of growth or fungal contamination. (Photo: Elena Fouce Hernandez).

Throughout these assays, I also had to prepare seed tissues for future lipid and chemical studies and excise many embryonic axes to subject them to different flash-drying or oxidant stresses for upcoming cell cycle analyses using Flow Cytometry. My responsibilities did not finish there. I was also required to carry out various types of data analyses of morphological traits and to determine the statistical significance of our treatments, as well as drafting preliminary figures such as water uptake or germination curves. All of these will aid in the continuation of the CryoSync project now that my intern duties have come to an end.

Elena wearing a lab coat and blue safety gloves sat at a science bench. On the bench in front of her is a chopping board and a plastic tub full of brown envelopes — Science project intern of CryoSync project preparing English oak acorn tissues for flash freezing in liquid nitrogen. (Photo: Leela Watt Podar).

It is with a heavy heart that I abandon my adopted acorn scions, but I know they are in the good hands of scientists who care about their survival and cherish the incredible biodiversity of our world. As such, I’m optimistic that a future where we can successfully conserve recalcitrant seeds ex situ, including acorns, is now a little closer.

References

Ballesteros, D. & Pritchard, H.W. (2020) The cryobiotechnology of oaks: an integration of approaches for the long-term ex situ conservation of Quercus species. Forests. 11: 1281. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/f11121281
de Simone, A., Hubbard, R., de la Torre, N.V., Velappan, Y., Wilson, M., Considine, M.J. et al. (2017) Redox changes during the cell cycle in the embryonic root meristem of Arabidopsis thaliana. Antioxidants and Redox Signaling. 27: 1505-1519. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2016.6959
Pence, V.C., Ballesteros, D., Walters, C., Reed, B.M., Philpott, M., Dixon, K.W. et al. (2020) Cryobiotechnologies: tools for expanding long-term ex situ conservation to all plant species. Biological Conservation. 250: 108736. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108736
Wyse, S.V. & Dickie, J.B. (2017) Predicting the global incidence of seed desiccation sensitivity. Journal of Ecology. 105: 1082-1093. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12725

by Pramote Triboun (National Science and Technology Development Agency, Thailand)

Thailand is located in mainland Asia, and sits in the middle of the south east Asian countries, just north of the equator. This part of the world covers about 513,120 km². Most of Thailand has a tropical climate, resulting in the entire country having a rich biodiversity and network of ecoregions, like the northern Indochina subtropical moist forests in the North, Mekong River in the East and North-east, Cardamon mountain moist forests in the south-east, Salween River and Kayah-Karen (Tenasserim) moist forests in the North down to the West, and peninsular Malaysian lowland and mountain forests in the South. These shaped various types of vegetation and some 15,000 native plant species have been recorded with moderately high endemism.

An aerial view of a hilly landscape. The slopes are covered in isolated patches of forest with open expanses between them — Expanding of deforestation is still continuing throughout Asia particularly outside the protected areas, it may cause mass reduction and extinction of species, genetic and ecosystem. (Photo: Pramote Triboun).

In September 2014, the Flora of Thailand Conference was held at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the meeting excursion visited the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB). During the opening ceremony day, H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn of Thailand announced her leadership on a royal initiative project, not only for the taxonomy but also for the conservation of Thai plants. For decades Thailand had many small seed banks for short-term conservation but never a national seed bank for long-term conservation. Therefore, this event marked the starting point to set up standardised seed banking services, to maintain high standards with high qualification specimen management systems, procedures and other key protocols to help achieve the conservation goals. 2 years later, in 2016, the MSB provided initial grants, knowledge, protocols and some equipment to Thailand.

HRH Princess Maha Chakri stood behind a desk placing a seed vial into a purple container. A group of people are stood behind watching on. — H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn on her visit to the National Biobank of Thailand (NBT) in March 2022, in front of the robotic sample store. She banked the seeds of an endemic and rare species which is named after her, *Buxus sirindhorniana*. (Photo: NSTDA).

The National Biobank of Thailand (NBT) was established on 1^st February 2019. The NBT provides infrastructure for the conservation of the biological resources of Thailand, and supports research using advanced technology on the value and potential for development of biological resources from the genetic to the ecosystem level. The wild seed bank is one part of the NBT, aiming to bank, and support national long-term conservation, of native species, particularly in endangered and threatened species, as well as focusing on research in seed biology.

In 2022 a new robotic seed bank section was added. While automated operating systems are not uncommon in agricultural seed banks, they are rarely used in wild seed banks. The robotic seed bank itself is a sealed unit, about the size of a lorry container, where dried seeds are stored at -20°C. When typing a retrieval request into the operating computer, a robotic arm locates the correct tray, pulls it out, selects the target vial and brings it to an access hatch. There is also an automatic germination room, where robots monitor germination. Alongside this space-age technology, NBT also houses top-quality conventional facilities, such as walk-in dry and cold rooms and processing labs using traditional sieving to clean the collections – sometimes the old methods are the best.

Looking up towards 6 people standing in a circle with their heads together. They are all smiling and have their thumbs up, fingers cross or in the peace sign — Photo: Pramote Triboun.

Four seed scientists stood at a bench each working with tweezers in a plastic box. They are all wearing white lab coats and face masks — Photo: Pramote Triboun.

A group of people sat around a table with a presentation on a screen at one end of the table — Photo: Pramote Triboun.

A row of people stood smiling against a wall at the seed bank of the National Biobank of Thailand — Photo: Pramote Triboun.

A group of people stood looking at a screen which is showing the robotic seed bank working — Photo: Pramote Triboun.

Rows of shelves either side of a narrow walkway. The shelves are stacked with blue, red, yellow and green plastic boxes. At the back on the top of the wall is a set of three wall fans. — Photo: Pramote Triboun.

A narrow walkway with rows of glass fronted shelves coming off them. Jars are just visible on the edge of the shelves — Photo: Pramote Triboun.

Metal racking with 6 columns of plastic trays. Some of the trays are black with glass vials sticking out from the top, whilst other trays are deeper and purple. A robotic machine is visible in front of the racking — Photo: Pramote Triboun.

In the six years since establishment of the NBT, the seed bank has deposited orthodox seed of over 2,000 accessions of wild plant species from nature. The NBT seed bank is collaborating with many institutions, both nationally and internationally, of whom are outstanding in plant conservation. This collaboration works to avoid the risk of extinction and reduce the loss of genetic biodiversity.

A group of seed collectors sat on a rocky platform infront of a waterfall. They are all concentrating on bags or packets they are holding. — Collecting seeds of some endemic species in the family Podostemaceae on exposed rocks along a waterfall; the unique habitat of this family that is widely distributed in Thailand. But their habitats are at risk of destruction due to contaminated water. (Photo: Thanaphum Kaowthaisong).

A row of six people stood smiling at the camera. They are stood amongst shrubs on a valley side with mountains in the background. — Searching for threatened plant species for seed banking, from sea to high mountains all throughout the country, insuring against the extinction of Thai plants. (Photo: Pramote Triboun).

A group of three people scrambling over rocks. There is a flag pole on the edge with the Thai flag flying. There are mountains in the background. — Searching for threatened plant species for seed banking, from sea to high mountains all throughout the country, insuring against the extinction of Thai plants. (Photo: Chaiwat Promthep).

A group of three people photographing a plant on a rocky platform above the sea. Behind them is the sea. — Searching for threatened plant species for seed banking, from sea to high mountains all throughout the country, insuring against the extinction of Thai plants. (Photo: Thanaphum Kaowthaisong).

This article is available in English and Spanish

Este artículo está disponible en inglés y español.

English

If you were a plant, what would you be and why?

If I were a plant, I would be a palm tree, because almost all of them have an important ecosystem function. They also have several uses, like food, fibre to make roofs, ropes, clothing. Palms also have beautiful seeds.

Looking up to the sky to two tall palms. Each have a full crown of palm leaves. — *Ceroxylon sasaimae*, a threatened palm species in Antioquia. (Photo: Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido).

Could you tell us something about some species you're working with, and about your projects as well?

I'm currently working on three main projects:

In collaboration with RBG Kew, we are working on 11 critically endangered species, endemic to Colombia, in three areas: Antioquia, Boyacá, and Cundinamarca.

The prioritised species in Antioquia are Ceroxylon sasaimae Galeano (Arecaeae), Dracula lemurella Luer & R.Escobar (Orchidaceae), Magnolia coronata M.Serna, C.Velásquez & Cogollo (Magnoliaceae), Magnolia polyhypsophylla (Lozano) Govaerts (Magnoliaceae), Melicoccus antioquensis Acev.-Rodr. (Sapindaceae), and Simira hirsuta C.M.Taylor (Rubiaceae).

In Boyacá, different species of Espeletia Bonpl. (Asteraceae family) have been identified as priorities: Espeletia oswaldiana S.Díaz, Espeletia paipana S.Díaz & Pedraza, Espeletia raquirensis Rodr.-Cabeza & S.Díaz and Espeletia tibamoensis Rodr.-Cabeza & S.Díaz.

Field trip with Mónica showing Espeletia tibamoensis, one of the species prioritised for conservation in Boyacá. (Photo: Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido).

Finally, Tillandsia chartacea L.B.Sm., a species of epiphytic bromeliad, is the selected priority in Cundinamarca.

Information on these 11 species of interest comes from old records. Therefore, the objective of this project is to find populations of the species of interest and monitor their conservation status. In addition, phenological monitoring is being carried out to identify the best season to collect the seeds, which has already been determined in some cases.

In Antioquia, for the monitoring and conservation of magnolias and Ceroxylon sasaimae, the project is supported by the Salvamontes corporation, as well as an intern, whose activities are currently focused on in situ propagation trials.

Magnolia coronata, a threatened species in Antioquia. (Photo: Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido).
The project “Threatened Trees of Rio Claro” aims to conserve eight species of trees, in different IUCN threat categories. These trees typically grow in a site of great ecological interest impacted by marble extraction. This project comprised a two-year community work package, in which people from the region were trained to take phenological data, collect seeds and propagate them in local nurseries.
The project “Agrobiodiversity Montes de María” aims to gather information about the agrobiodiversity of a region that was greatly affected by the civil war, to understand the relationship between dry forests and agriculture. One focus of our research is to learn about the Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) that can be obtained from wild trees and their use within the agricultural production system to support livelihoods and climate change resilience.

In this region, the ethnobotanical knowledge of older generations is gradually being lost, due to the unstable socio-political history and the fact that young people are moving away to seek opportunities in the city. However, some young people have been returning to their home communities, motivated to take care of the area and learn about their roots: hence, our future hope is to be able to integrate the recovery of ethnobotanical knowledge into the project as part of the process of conservation of natural resources and cultural diversity. This would support the regeneration of local communities that are trying to live peacefully by bringing together farmers, guerrilla fighters, and former paramilitaries.

The Humboldt Institute was involved in phase 3 of the Global Tree Seed Bank Programme (GTSBP). How has tree seed conservation continued since the end of that phase?

The GTSBP target species are being collected and propagated. Field trips are made about once a month, and mainly two species from Antioquia are propagated: Ceroxylon sasaimae and Magnolia polyhypsophylla.

Species are propagated in the nursery, as well as with seed balls directly in situ. Also pre-germination treatments to stimulate germination are studied, comparing the results of nursery propagation with those in the field. The seedlings obtained have not yet been planted in situ because they are slow growing.

What are some of the main difficulties in seed conservation in Colombia?

Given the lack of information on some species and some areas, there is a need for a baseline of biology and ecology to carry out more effective conservation actions. In Colombia, many areas that were not accessible due to the conflict are still being explored, and many new species are being found. However, very little is known about these plants, threatened by anthropogenic pressures.
Another difficulty is access to resources. It would be great to have long-term funded projects that can bring together people who are interested in seed conservation, expanding knowledge and conservation actions.
More technology is needed to be able to carry out projects and improve seed conservation techniques.

Two people sitting on the forest floor. They are both arranging a plant specimen out on newspaper — Field activity collecting herbarium samples. (Photo: Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido).

What was one of the most satisfying moments in your seed conservation work?

I currently have a project on threatened species, and it is complicated to even find populations in the wild due to lack of data. Therefore, it is always very exciting to find the populations on a field expedition and collect their seeds. In addition, being able to see these threatened species, and remembering that there are only a few individuals remaining, is a real privilege.

Another satisfying aspect of my work is to periodically monitor the populations, to finally see the fruit and seeds of the plants for the first time. Many times, when they are found, they are in the vegetative state.

Finally, I feel happy when I store seeds because I believe it is an important contribution to species conservation.

How did your interest in plant conservation begin?

I grew up in Bogotá, but since I was a child, I went on vacations to my grandparents' place of origin in the countryside, where I always had contact with nature. My siblings and cousins and I would spend many hours playing, camping under a tree, using leaves and flowers as barter coins and food in our children's games. When I grew up, I felt the need to take care of nature. This need grew stronger when I started studying Biology and understood that I live in one of the most biodiverse places in the world. I feel that it is my responsibility to contribute to the conservation of this paradise that is Colombia.

What advice would you give to anyone who wants to get involved in plant conservation?

My top tips would be:

Enquire about plants in your region.
Contact institutes and people interested in the topic.
Ask about the different conservation programmes that exist.
Networking, because everything is easier if you work with allies who are interested in the same topic.

Could you tell us something about the networks of seed banks for wild plant species in Colombia?

We currently have a Colombian seed conservation network, in which different research institutes that work on the issues of both agricultural and forestry seeds participate. This network includes the Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute, the José Celestino Mutis Botanical Garden of Bogotá, the Cartagena Botanical Garden, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the Colombian Agricultural Research Corporation (AGROSAVIA), the Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA), the Universidad del Valle and the Universidad Nacional de Colombia. The network’s objective is to address ways to strengthen the management and conservation of seeds in Colombia. We also want to link community seed networks and seed guardians, to work together so that the results of the research generated reach communities. A very important and ambitious goal would be to form a Latin American seed network, which works with other countries, exchanging experiences in seed conservation.

Español

¿Si fueras una planta cuál serías y por qué?

Si fuera una planta sería una palmera, porque casi todas tienen una función importante para el ecosistema. Además, tienen varios usos, dado que se emplean como alimento, fibra para hacer techo, cuerdas, vestidos, y porque tienen semillas muy bonitas.

Mirando hacia el cielo a dos palmeras altas. Cada uno tiene un dosel lleno de hojas de palma. — *Ceroxylon sasaimae*, especie de palmera amenazada en Antioquia. (Créditos: Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido).

¿Podrías decirnos algo sobre algunas especies con las cuáles estás trabajando, y sobre tus proyectos también?

Actualmente estoy trabajando en tres proyectos principales.

En colaboración con el Real Jardín Botánico de Kew estamos trabajando con 11 especies endemicas de Colombia y criticamente amenazadas en en tres areas principales: Antioquia, Boyacá, y Cundinamarca.

Las especies priorizadas en Antioquia son Ceroxylon sasaimae Galeano (Arecaeae), Dracula lemurella Luer & R.Escobar (Orchidaceae), Magnolia coronata M.Serna, C.Velásquez & Cogollo (Magnoliaceae), Magnolia polyhypsophylla (Lozano) Govaerts (Magnoliaceae), Melicoccus antioquensis Acev.-Rodr. (Sapindaceae), y Simira hirsuta C.M.Taylor (Rubiaceae).

En Boyacá se han elegido diferentes especies de frailejones (família Asteraceae): Espeletia oswaldiana S.Díaz, Espeletia paipana S.Díaz & Pedraza, Espeletia raquirensis Rodr.-Cabeza & S.Díaz, Espeletia tibamoensis Rodr.-Cabeza & S.Díaz.

Salida de campo con Mónica enseñando Espeletia tibamoensis, una especie de frailejón priorizada para la conservación. (Créditos: Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido).

Por último, en Cundinamarca se ha seleccionado Tillandsia chartacea L.B.Sm., una especie de bromelia epifita.

La información disponible sobre estas 11 especies proviene de registros antiguos. Por lo tanto, el objetivo del proyecto es encontrar las poblaciones de las especies de interés y monitorear su estado de conservación. Además, se está haciendo un seguimiento fenológico para identificar la temporada mejor para recolectar las semillas, las cuales en algunos casos ya se han encontrado.

En Antioquia para el monitoreo y conservación de las magnolias y de Ceroxylon sasaimae el proyecto se apoya en la corporación Salvamontes y una pasante, cuyas actividades principales son actualmente unos ensayos de propagación in situ.

Magnolia coronata, especie amenazada en Antioquia. (Créditos: Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido).
El proyecto “Arboles amenazados del Río Claro” tiene el objetivo de conservar ocho especies de árboles en diferentes categorías UICN de amenaza. Estos árboles crecen en un sitio de gran interese ecológico impactado por la extracción del mármol. Durante dos años el proyecto se ha ocupado de formar personas locales cualificadas para tomar datos fenológicos, colectar semillas, y hacer propagación en viveros locales.
El proyecto “Agrobiodiversidad Montes de Maria” busca conocer la agrobiodiversidad de una región que fue muy afectada por la guerra civil para entender la relación entre bosques secos y agricultura. Una parte de la investigación se enfoca en los Productos Forestales No Maderables (PFNMs) que se pueden obtener de los árboles silvestres y su uso en el sistema de producción agrícola para sustentar los medios de vida y la resiliencia al cambio climático.

En esta región el conocimiento etnobotánico de las viejas generaciones se está poco a poco perdiendo debido a la historia sociopolítica inestable y ya que los jóvenes se han alejado de la realidad campesina para buscar oportunidades enlas ciudades. Sin embargo, a veces los jóvenes vuelven a las comunidades de origen con la motivación de cuidar su territorio y conocer sus raíces: por eso, una expectativa futura sería integrar en el proyecto la recuperación del conocimiento etnobotánico como parte del proceso de conservación de los recursos naturales y de la diversidad cultural. Esto permitiría la regeneración de las comunidades locales que están tratando de vivir de forma pacífica integrando campesinos, guerrilleros y ex paramilitares.

El Instituto Humboldt estaba involucrado en la fase 3 del Proyecto Global Tree Seed Bank Programme (GTSBP). ¿Cómo ha continuado la conservación de semillas de árboles desde el final de esa fase?

Las especies objetivo del GTSBP están siendo recolectadas y propagadas. Las salidas de campo se hacen aproximadamente una vez al mes, y se propagan principalmente dos especies de Antioquia: Ceroxylon sasaimae y Magnolia polyhypsophylla.

Las especies se propagan en vivero y con bombas de semillas directamente in situ. Además,se estudian tratamientos pre-germinativos potencialmente eficaces para estimular la germinación, comparando los resultados de la propagación en vivero con los del campo. Las plántulas obtenidas aún no se han plantado in situ porque tienen crecimiento lento.

¿Cuáles son las dificultades principales de la conservación de las semillas en Colombia?

La poca información que se tiene de algunas especies y de algunas áreas, hace falta una línea base de biología y ecología para poder realizar acciones de conservación más efectivas. En Colombia, aún se exploran áreas donde antes no se podía entrar por el conflicto y se encuentran muchas especies nuevas que no se conocen mucho, pero que, por la vulnerabilidad de su hábitat y las presiones antrópicas, están amenazadas y urge la necesidad de conservar.
Otra dificultad es el acceso a los recursos. Sería muy positivo poder tener proyectos financiados a largo plazo y que puedan juntar personas interesadas en el tema de la conservación de semillas, ampliando el conocimiento y las acciones de conservación.
Hace falta más tecnología para poder hacer proyectos y mejorar las técnicas de conservación de semillas.

Dos personas sentadas en el suelo del bosque. Ambos están arreglando una amuestra de herbário de planta en un periódico. — Actividad de campo recolectando amuestras de herbario. (Créditos: Mónica Andrea Flórez Pulido).

¿Cuál fue uno de los momentos de mayor satisfacción en tu trabajo de conservación de semillas?

Actualmente tengo un proyecto de especies en categoría crítica de amenaza, donde a veces no se tienen muchos datos para poder encontrar las especies; entonces, siempre es muy emocionante encontrar las poblaciones en una expedición al campo y recolectar sus semillas. Además, poder ver esas especies amenazadas acordándose que solo quedan pocos individuos es un verdadero privilegio.

Otro aspecto de mi trabajo que me da satisfacción es dar seguimiento periódico a las poblaciones para finalmente ver el fruto y la semilla de las plantas por primera vez, ya que muchas veces cuando se encuentran están en estado vegetativo.

Por último, siento mucha satisfacción en almacenar las semillas en el banco porque creo que es una contribución importante para la conservación de la especie.

¿Cómo empezó tu interés para la conservación de las plantas?

Crecí en Bogotá, pero siempre iba de vacaciones en el lugar de origen de mis abuelos en el campo donde siempre tuve contacto con la naturaleza. Con mis hermanos y primos pasábamos muchas horas en la naturaleza, jugando al campamento debajo de un árbol, usando hojas y flores como monedas de intercambio y comida en nuestros juegos de niños. La necesidad de cuidar la naturaleza se hizo más fuerte cuando empecé a estudiar Biología y entendí que vivo en uno de los lugares más biodiversos del mundo. Siento que es mi responsabilidad contribuir a la conservación de este paraíso que es Colombia.

¿Cuál consejo darías a cualquier persona que quisiera envolverse en la conservación de plantas?

Mis consejos principales serían:

Indagar sobre las plantas de su región.
Contactar a los institutos y personas interesadas en el tema.
Preguntar sobre los diferentes programas de conservación que existen.
Hacer redes de trabajo, porque todo es más sencillo si se trabaja con aliados que estén interesados en el mismo tema.

¿Podrías decirnos algo sobre las redes de bancos de semillas para especies vegetales silvestres en Colombia?

Actualmente tenemos una red de conservación de semillas colombianas, donde participan diferentes institutos de investigación que trabajan sobre semillas agrícolas y forestales. Esta red comprende el Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, el Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis, el Jardín Botánico de Cartagena, el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical-CIAT, la Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria-AGROSAVIA, el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario-ICA, la Universidad del Valle y la universidad Nacional de Colombia. El objetivo de la red es trabajar temas que fortalezcan el manejo y la conservación de semillas en el territorio colombiano. También queremos vincular custodios y redes de semillas comunitarios para trabajar conjuntamente y para que los resultados de las investigaciones generadas puedan llegar a las comunidades. Un objetivo muy importante y ambicioso sería poder conformar una red latinoamericana de semillas para poder trabajar en bloque con otros países e intercambiar experiencias en la conservación de semillas.

When removing storage containers from our base store (-20°C) to remove seeds, we warm up the collections for 24 hours at 15°C/ 15% relative humidity (RH) before opening the container, following MSB protocol. After that, can we re-freeze the seeds at -20°C, or is defrosting and re-freezing not recommended in order to avoid seed viability loss?

As you say, warming up the seeds prior to opening the storage container is recommended. It is particularly important to wait until the container has equilibrated to room temperature before opening. This avoids any potential for condensation to form within the container. The time needed for the container (and contents) to warm will depend on the volume of the container. The concern is not so much the effect on any seeds that are removed from the container, but rather the effect on any seeds that remain in the container, as these will be returned to storage. Even small increases in seed equilibrium relative humidity (eRH) will reduce their potential longevity.

In terms of the impact of thawing and re-freezing on seeds, this is an active area of research. However, as outlined above, allowing the seeds to gain moisture during defrosting, and not re-equilibrating to 15% RH ± 3% prior to re-freezing will reduce their potential longevity. Seeds are still subject to ageing when dried and frozen, but the reactions causing the ageing are significantly slower than when the seeds are at a higher temperature and moisture content (Buitink & Hoekstra, 2003; Gerna et al., 2022). The drying of seeds results in an increase in the viscosity of the intracellular fluid, which is believed to reduce the rate of the chemical reactions causing seed ageing (Buitink & Hoekstra, 2003 and references therein). Consequently, if the seeds are maintained at a low moisture content during the thawing and re-freezing process, the rate of chemical reactions causing seed ageing should remain lower than if the seeds are allowed to re-gain moisture during the process.

However, for oil-rich seeds and “intermediate” seeds (those that are partially desiccation sensitive and generally short-lived under standard conservation seed banking conditions), there is more uncertainty, as different storage lipids and fatty acids respond differently to drying and cold temperatures, including -20°C, impacting molecular mobility and ageing reactions (Crane et al., 2006 and references therein; Mira et al., 2019).

Since the relationship between repeatedly thawing and freezing of seeds is not yet fully understood, it is recommended that seed collections are divided into two prior to storage. One part is classed as the ‘base’ store whilst the other portion is classed as the ‘active’ store. Both portions are stored at -20°C and treated the same, but if any seeds from the collection are requested or needed for viability testing, they are taken from the ‘active’ store. Those in the base store are considered the core conservation collection, and only accessed if the active store is exhausted. This way, where possible, only one portion of the collection is exposed to thawing and re-freezing, thereby mitigating any potential thawing and re-freezing effects on seed longevity for at least a portion of the collection. It is not always possible to split collections into different portions, for example if the collection is already small, but where possible this is best practice.

Acknowledgements

Thank-you to Davide Gerna and Louise Colville for their input into this answer.

References

Buitink, J. & Hoekstra, F.A. (2003) Understanding and predicting optimal storage conditions and longevity: a biophysical approach. Eds. Smith, R.D., Dickie, J.D., Linington, S.H., Pritchard, H.W. & Probert, R.J. Seed conservation: turning science into practice. RBG Kew, UK.
Crane, J., Kovach, D., Gardner, C. & Walters, C. (2006) Triacyglycerol phase and 'intermediate' seed storage physiology: a study of Cuphea carthagenesis. Planta. 223: 1081-1089.
Gerna, D., Ballesteros, D., Arc, E., Stöggl, W., Seal, C.E., Marami-Zonouz, N., Sun Na, C., Kranner, I. & Roach, T. (2022) Does oxygen affect ageing mechanisms of Pinus densiflora? A matter of cytoplasmic physical state. Journal of Experimental Botany. 73(7):2631-2649.
Mira, S., Nadarajan, J., Liu, U., González-Benito, M.E. & Pritchard, H. (2019) Lipid thermal fingerprints of long-term stored seeds of Brassicaceae. Plants. 8: 414.

Issue 7: September 2023

In this issue we hear about work in Corsica on two National Action Plans (plans nationaux d'actions - PNA). Ching-Yuan Hung, an MSB intern, shares the Kalanchoe project she worked on whilst on her internship and Vonona and Henintsoa talk us through the recent seed conservation techniques training course in Madagascar. Our species profiles this issue cover three threatened species from South Africa, and we interview Keith Manger who recently retired from the MSB after more than 25 years working for Kew.

Four glass bottles stood in a row each with a different type of seed in — Corsican seeds. (Photo: L. Fausti).

Tall forest canopy with misty sunlight above. In the foreground is a tree fern and smaller trees and shrubs. — Humid Forest, Madagascar. (Photo: David Rabehevitra).

A white background scattered with lots of small curved light brown seeds — *Kalanchoe* seeds. (Photo: Ching-Yuan Hung).

A branched shrub with terminal infloresences. The leaves have an opposite decussate arrangement and are pale grey/green in colour ending in a rounded tip. The terminal infloresences contain whorls of deep reddy/pink buds. The flowers are a light pink colour. — *Syncolostemon incanus*, South Africa. (Photo: Fergy Nkadimeng).

Stories from the field and lab this issue explores the creation of two National Action Plans for a range of species from Corsica and about imaging techniques for the Kalanchoe genus.

National Action Plans (plans nationaux d'actions - PNA) are used in France as a way to focus on species for which conservation measures are needed.

For the Corsican flora, two PNAs are in progress. We presented in last December's Samara (issue 38), the first one, focussing on five Corsican Limonium species. The second concerns serpentinite vegetation in Corsica. For the two PNAs ex situ conservation actions include:

improving knowledge on viability, biology, phenology and germination conditions
developing genetically representative collections for each taxa in the seed bank.

These operations are financed by the French Ministry of Ecological Transition via the "Fonds vert".

What's new with the Limonium PNA? This year, Limonium seed lots harvested since 2019 were sorted into two groups. Some of the sorted seeds were placed in the National Botanical Conservatory (CBNC) seed bank, while others were subjected to various germination tests. When harvesting rare species, we don't exceed 25% of the total quantity of seeds in the population.

Germination tests, based on ENSCONET protocols, were carried out: 50 seeds (with the same initial appearance) were put on blotting paper soaked with distilled water. To find the optimum germination conditions and determine seed viability, the influence of two factors: light and temperature (15°C, 20°C, 25°C) were tested.

New tests will be carried out in 2024 to confirm the initial results obtained. These results will lead to a publication on Limonium germination conditions.

The CBNC is also working on the conservation of serpentinite species and vegetation in Corsica. The serpentinites (metamorphic rock rich in heavy metals) have a very high level of endemism, making a very special environment. In Corsica, there are various serpentinicolous outcrops, found in alpine areas, predominantly in Cap Corse and Castagniccia. This multi-taxa PNA will focus on an environment that needs to be preserved, but also needs to be better understood. Seven species, mostly or strictly serpentinicolous, are covered by this PNA: Alyssum robertianum, Biscutella rotgesii (protected by law), Scrophularia canina var. deschatresii, Elytrigia corsica (protected by law), Senecio serpentinicola, Echium montenielluense and Euphorbia pithyusa subsp. cupanii (protected by law). These seven species are endemic to Corsica, have a restricted range and are on the national and/or regional red lists. All of these taxa should be protected by law.

The development of this PNA started in 2023, and Action no. 9 of the PNA framework document focusses on seed bank development for Corsican serpentine taxa and the establishment of protocols for cultivation. It will also improve our knowledge of their germination through laboratory tests. In 2023, seed collection was initiated for all taxa at various locations. These harvests have already been sorted and banked. In 2024, germination tests will be carried out under different parameters. The results will be published.

We hope to share good news with you quite soon!

A glass bottle full of seeds on a table behind a small pile of seeds. On the bottle is a label which has biscutella 27/06 written on it. The year is not visible. — Photo: L. Fausti, CBNC.

A birds eye view of four glass bottles each stood next to a small pile of the seeds they contain. The seeds vary from small round dark coloured ones to elongated light brown ones. — Photo: L. Fausti, CBNC.

For more information:

CBNC website: cbnc.oec.fr
PNA Limonium: biodiversite.gouv.fr/projet-pna/wp-content/uploads/PNA_statices_endemiques_de_corse_Limoniums_2021.pdf
PNA contact: Lillia.Fausti@oec.fr
Ex situ conservation contact: Caroline.Favier@oec.fr

CBN Conservatoire Botanique National Corse

France Nation Verte > Agir. Mobiliser. Accélérer. Fonds Vert!

Most of the species within the Kalanchoe genus are native to Madagascar, with some of them extending their distribution to regions such as Arabia and Asia (Vargas et al., 2022). However, human activities have led to the widespread presence of certain common species outside their original habitats, particularly those with ornamental value, resulting in some becoming invasive species (Herrando-Moraira et al., 2020; Vargas et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2016). Some Kalanchoe species are also known for their ornamental and medicinal uses in various countries (Akulova-Barlow, 2009).

Nine seeds lined up in a row. The first eight seeds are small varying slightly in length and the shape of the top, the final seed is tear drop shaped amber in colour and larger than the other seeds. The individual seeds are labelled K. gastonis-bonnieri, K. beharensis, K. orgyalis, K. nyikae, K. lateritia, K. brachyloba, K. thyrsiflora and K. paniculata. The larger amber colour seed is labelled K. arborescens. — Figure 1: Showcasing seed images captured using focus stacking technology. (Photo: Ching-Yuan Hung).

Kalanchoe seeds are small and display brown to black colours, making it difficult to discern their texture with the naked eye. Despite their significance, research on Kalanchoe seed morphology has been limited, possibly due to their small size and ease of vegetative propagation. To address this research gap and develop a model for distinguishing seed morphology, a study was conducted using 34 Kalanchoe seed collections, respresenting 32 species in Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank at Wakehurst.

Two images side by side. The image on the left has a white background scattered with lots of small curved light brown seeds. The image on the right is the same image as on the left but with the colours inverted so the seeds are on a black background with each individual seed numbered. — Figure 2a: The utilisation of ImageJ analysis to isolate individual seeds within the image and extract parameter data for model construction. (Photo: Ching-Yuan Hung).

Image analysis was employed to quickly assess seed size, perimeter, solidity, and other relevant parameters, generating a comprehensive dataset for use in further investigations. Selected seeds were placed under a microscope, and pictures containing between 30 and 70 seeds were captured for ImageJ analysis (Figure 2). Additionally, higher magnification images were taken using focus-stacking technology, which combines pictures of the same object captured at different focal planes to create a sharp image with everything in focus. These focus-stacked images were linked to the online Data Warehouse of the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) (Figure 3).

The primary findings of the image analysis of bulk seed shapes and sizes will be published in a scientific journal to contribute to the existing knowledge base.

Overall, this research provides valuable insights into Kalanchoe seed morphology and establishes a framework for future studies on seed characteristics, which may have implications for conservation, horticulture, and other relevant fields.

A screenshot of the MSBP Data Warehouse web interface. The layout is split into three sections, on the left is a taxa filter with Kalanchoe selected. In the centre the images tab is selected and there are thumbnails of six different seed images available. Within the right section is a larger version of one of the thumbnails showing three tear-drop shaped seeds. — Figure 3: Illustrates that individuals can now access seed images from the MSBP online data warehouse. Moreover, users can zoom in to obtain a closer examination of the seedcoat texture. (Credit: RBG, Kew).

References

Akulova-Barlow, Z. (2009) Kalanchoe. Cactus and Succulent Journal. 81: 268-276.
Herrando-Moraira, S., Vitales, D., Nualart, N., Gómez-Bellver, C., Ibáñez, N., Massó, S., Cachón-Ferrero, P., González-Gutiérrez, P.A., Guillot, D., Herrera, I., Shaw, D., Stinca, A., Wang, Z. & López-Pujol, J. (2020) Global distribution patterns and niche modelling of the invasive Kalanchoe x houghtonii (Crassulaceae).Scientific Reports.10.
Vargas, A., Herrera, I., Nualart, N., Guézou, A., Gómez-Bellver, C., Freire, E., Jaramillo Díz, P., López-Pujol, J. (2022) The Genus Kalanchoe (Crassulaceae) in Ecuador: from gardens to the wild. Plants. 11: 1746.
Wang, Z.-Q., Guillot, D., Ren, M.-X. & López-Pujol, J. (2016) Kalanchoe (Crassulaceae) as invasive aliens in China - new records, and actual and potential distribution. Nord. J. Bot.. 34: 349-354.

Across the MSBP article this month looks at how the Seed Conservation Techniques Course recently run in Madagascar went.

A wooden panelled room containing a u-shaped table configuration facing a presentation screen at the end of the room. Seated around the room are 19 people facing the presentation. The tables are covered in computers, water bottles and notebooks — Photo: Tim Pearce.

RBG Kew has been researching the Madagascar flora for over three decades. For the past 20 years, our seed conservation work through the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) programme has built a strong collaboration with Silo National des Graines Forestières (SNGF). This long-term collaboration has secured some 9,000 seed collections in the Madagascan national seed collection managed by SNGF. Since 2015, the work of the partnership between SNGF and the MSBP has been funded by the Garfield Weston Foundation, through the Global Tree Seed Bank (GTSB) programme. To date 2,500 seed collections have been made under this programme in Madagascar, representing at least 1,000 tree species conserved at SNGF and duplicated at the MSB in the UK.

From the 12^th to 23^rd June 2023, a training course on seed conservation techniques was held at SNGF. This initiative, part of the GTSB programme, aimed to provide training and technical advice to build the capacity of SNGF and the MSBP team in Madagascar to collect, store and manage high quality seed collections. The programme also aimed to strengthen the partnership between the MSBP teams from the UK and Madagascar and with the SNGF team. The training was delivered collaboratively by four members of the MSB team in the UK and three members of the MSBP team in Madagascar, who all brought different perspectives and areas of expertise to the training to ensure the programme was a success. The Head of the Production Department at SNGF also shared his expertise.

A wood panelled room with a presentation being shown on a screen. Vonona stands next to the screen indicating with one hand at something on the screen. On the screen can be read “1-Planning seed collection. To be able to plan a collecting trip, including getting to know your species, gathering equipment, and putting a team of people together”. The screen also contains an excerpt from the seed conservation standards: “Collecting, Seed, herbarium vouchers and data are collected to recognised protocols or guidelines. Standard 1.1: Genetic materials, including traditional knowledge, are legally collected and conserved. Standard 1.2: Collection names are verified (ideally by reference to a herbarium voucher specimen). Standard 1.3: Genetic diversity of sampled population is adequately represented. Standard 1.4: Essential field data is recorded. Standard 1.5: Survival of source population is not compromised — Photo: Clare Callow.

18 participants attended the course, including nine from the Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre (KMCC), seven from SNGF, one from Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (PBZT) and one from Centre ValBio at Parc Ranomafana. The mix of participants ensured an interesting breadth of experience was brought to, and shared throughout, the course.

The training covered a wide range of topics related to seed conservation. Participants learned about the MSB’s seed conservation standards, seed morphology, seed development and maturity, and building high-quality collections. They learned techniques for sampling genetic diversity, pre-collection assessment, germination testing, seed storage behaviour, germination and dormancy conditions, drying and the choice of seed storage containers.

To put their new knowledge into practice, the participants were divided into four groups. They carried out viability and germination tests, including cut tests, on eight different species. These practical exercises enabled participants to apply the techniques they had learned and to identify any gaps in their individual knowledge.

An essential part of the training was a field trip to a forest managed by the local community of Antavolobe, located in the eastern part of Madagascar, around 150 km from Antananarivo. Over five days, participants received in-depth training in methods for targeting seed populations, population assessments, cut tests, calculating seed availability, collecting seeds, the field data and preparing herbarium specimens. We also learnt about using a variety of equipment including field microscopes, hygrometers, pole pruners and a catapult. On the return journey the group stopped at a sacred site in the central highlands – Angavokely – to test their newly developed skills on seed collecting from non-tree species. The population assessment and collecting methods are the same regardless of the environment, but it was very interesting to see how the pre-collection assessment results differed for non-forest species, where the estimated total number of seeds was over two million, compared to just 300 or so for the tree species we had looked at over the previous days. We made two grass seed collections which have been duplicated to the MSB.

A group of people standing and kneeling on a stone outcrop smiling into the camera. Behind them is a river valley landscape with mountains behind. There are scattered pockets of trees and shrubs throughout the landscape. — Photo: David Rabehevitra.

Back in Antananarivo, the participants had the opportunity to put their seed processing skills into practice. They learned techniques for cleaning, counting and preparing seeds for storage. Presentations were also given on managing seed data and monitoring seed viability. There was an opportunity for each participant to share their hopes for the future in terms of ex situ conservation of species through seed collection, and how they might work towards the realisation of these hopes through their own roles. In-depth discussions were held on collecting from rare and threatened species and from scarce populations, and on future restoration projects in Madagascar.

Two trainees wearing white lab coats stand behind a bench. Each trainee is holding a Kilner jar full of seeds and has a notebook in front of them on the bench. The lady in the front is writing in the notebook, whilst the gentleman at the back is inspecting the seeds in the jar — Photo: Clare Callow.

This training not only strengthened relationships among the various stakeholders (MSB , KMCC, SNGF, PBZT, and Centre Valbio) but also promised to make a positive and impactful contribution to our future work. It facilitated direct collaboration between the MSB Seed Collections team and their SNGF counterparts, allowing the exchange of expertise and experience for more effective long-term conservation of plants.

The training concluded with a quiz, followed by a group lunch, during which certificates were presented by the Director of SNGF, accompanied by the Conservation Partnership Co-ordinator for Africa from the MSB, and the head of KMCC’s Operations Team. This moment of celebration was an opportunity to recognise the efforts made by the participants and to underline the importance of their contribution to seed conservation in Madagascar.

A large group of people stand smiling outside a large wooden building with SNGF Silo National Des Graines Forestieres written on it. A flag is hung across the middle of the building with three horizontal stripes. The top stripe is white, the middle stripe is red and the bottom stripe is green. — Photo: David Rabehevitra.

The Garfield Weston Foundation have committed to funding the next phase of this programme, the Global Tree Seed Bank: Unlocked, which will run for three years from January 2024. This phase will see the MSBP team continue to partner with SNGF with a collection programme targeting endemic, rare and threatened species of trees and shrubs and other woody species that contribute to climate resilience, food security and livelihoods. The programme will also involve increasing seed supply for restoration projects in Madagascar, the development of improved facilities for germination testing and propagation at SNGF, the development of tools and skills for state-of-the-art species identification and work towards a deeper understanding of restoration ecology and species traits. Another training programme in Madagascar will be developed during year two of the GTSB: Unlocked.

At the end of August this year we said goodbye to Keith who retired after over 25 years at Kew.

Keith stands next to an open cryo vessel, pulling out a storage rack — Inauguration of the MSB cryo facility in 2012. (Photo: W. Stuppy).

Keith stands on scaffolding next to the roof of the MSB which is covered in solar panels — PV elements on the MSB roof in 2012. (Photo: W. Stuppy).

What is your most memorable moment from your time working at the MSB?

This sounds really geeky, but I think it would be when we turned on the PVs (photovoltaic cells / solar panels) on the roof of the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB). I was heavily involved and was able to share my knowledge of the building. Kew’s Development team (previously Foundation) were critical in getting the financial case sorted. It was really significant with regards to reducing the building’s energy footprint. When the panels went live, that was an important moment for me. They have saved a massive amount of carbon (more than 300 tonnes) and currently deliver 7% of all our electricity at the MSB (about 550 MWhs). Getting the solar panels set up required working with the Estates team, Wakehurst staff and Foundation from within RBG Kew, and British Gas Solar (Centrica) outside of Kew.

More recently I assisted with getting PVs on the other half of the MSB roof, working with the Sustainability team.

The long side of the MSB with the curved roof covered in rows of solar panels. Infront of the MSB is a fenced meadow with black sheep in. — Photo: C. Cockel.

A side view of the MSB with two of the curved rooves visible, both covered in rows of solar panels — Photo: W. Stuppy.

What is your most memorable moment from an overseas trip?

What sort of memorable?!

Memorable for science, was the opening of the Kunming seed bank in China. Simon Linington and I had helped partners with the design of the very large seedbank facility. When we were invited out to see the finished seedbank it was amazing. Easily the biggest seed bank design I’ve been involved with.

A large, partially glass fronted building with fountains and landscaping outside. There are stairs leading up to the entrance. Five flags are flying on poles outside. — The Kunming Seed Bank, China. (Photo: J. Dickie).

Two freezer vault doors, each with a control panel above. The light is on in one room. — Inside the Kunming Seed Bank. (Photo: J. Dickie).

If you could be a seed, which would it be?

A Mangrove seed – they’re really difficult to store (I always like to be awkward!), yet vitally important for conservation, and when someone cracks how to save them (store them in a seed bank) it will make a great paper.

What one piece of advice would you share to anyone working in seed conservation?

Don't under value the importance of what you’re doing! It’s not about financial value it’s about global value – no plants means no people or animals!

How did you get into Seed Bank design and management?

I was already well versed in lab design through my previous job, as I set up labs. Roger Smith and Simon Linington wanted to ensure their knowledge, which was huge, was imparted to someone else and that was me. I’d like to think I’ve done them justice. The MSB is a brilliant example of how to get it (mostly) right.

Where do you see the MSB in 20 years?

I see the building exactly where it is, as it was designed to last 500 years! But I would like to think its focus will remain on conservation and affiliated research. I would love to see the addition of a significant cryo-preservation and tissue culture facility so that we could work with taxa with recalcitrant seeds, that’s what I started working on in the 1980s.

Keith in personal protective gear including face shield, gloves and an apron, removing a rack of samples from a cryo vessel — Working in the Kew cryo facility. (Photo: A. McRobb).

Would you do anything differently if you could turn back the clock? And what advice would you have for colleagues going forwards?

If I could turn back the clock, I think I would like to have got on board a long-term external financial backer and developed a mandate that ensured that the building would primarily carry on doing what it was designed for, and that is both conservation and research.

Advice to colleagues going forward - I think it would be, don’t undervalue the partnership model and be flexible to change.

What on earth will you do with all the free time you have after you retire?

I’m not going to have any free time! I shall probably end up doing some voluntary work or something similar but probably in a different area. I intend to take it a bit easier and not be so rushed off my feet... and get a lot fitter!

What would the perfect seed bank look like and where would it be?

It would probably be similar to the MSB in that it would be designed to encourage people to work together as teams and have an efficient flow through the building. It would need to be adaptable to change, as would the people. It would also need to be properly maintained and most importantly it would need to link in with the larger seed bank community globally. The MSB is not a bad blueprint.

The front of the MSB on a sunny day, with blue skies and the meadow in flower with Ox-eye daisies. — The MSB. (Photo: W. Stuppy).

What is the biggest achievement from your work with Kew?

Getting ISO 14001 accreditation (environmental) has benefitted the MSB significantly and we are regarded as being highly proficient in this area. The other thing is helping our partners. I enjoy talking about the MSB and sharing my knowledge and I really enjoy training people and assisting our partners. This is really important to me, working with international partners and helping them help themselves. All this (the MSB) has been delivered through partnership. I’m still in contact with many of the people we have worked with.

Any last comments?!

You’ll achieve twice as much working together and don’t be afraid to ask for funding. If you’re passionate about what you’re doing, it’s half the battle won.

Keith stands next to Kirstine, both in suits smiling — Keith with Kirstine at the celebration of achieving the 10% target in 2010. (Photo: W. Stuppy).

Keith stands with his arm around Michiel's shoulder. Both are smiling at the camera — Keith with Michiel van Slageren at the celebration of achieving the 10% target in 2010. (Photo: W. Stuppy).

Brackenridgea zanguebarica by Naomi Mdayi (SANBI)

Brackenridgea zanguebarica is a threatened tree species that has been over harvested in the wild because of its bark and roots, which are used in traditional medicine. Due to its restricted occurrence and rarity, it has been listed as Critically Endangered (IUCN) and populations continue to decline in the wild. A partnership between MSBP South Africa, Mpendulo Gabayi (Tree horticulturist at Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden), Thohoyandou National Botanical Garden, and the Missouri Botanical Garden in the United States was formed to conduct research on Brackenridgea zanguebarica. The project included monitoring the populations, seed collection and testing propagation techniques for this species. In addition, it is planned to augment and restore populations of this species in the wild. Ntsakisi Masia, joined Mpendulo Gabayi and Mpho Mathalauga at Brackenridge Nature Reserve, Limpopo, to conduct vegetative propagation (air layering) trials on Brackenridgea zanguebarica. Ntsakisi was tasked with monitoring the air layering experiment every three weeks over seven months at Brackenridge, Mutavhatsindi Nature Reserve in Thengwe, Limpopo Province. Ntsakisi, together with the Thohoyandou National Botanical Garden horticultural conservation worker, Rofhiwa Netshituni, and two horticultural interns, Thembuluwo Maduwa and Tshireletso Moloto, collected seeds of this CR species. The fruits were first covered in mesh bags to prevent birds and insects from feasting on them before they were ready to be harvested. Brackenridgea zanguebarica was successfully propagated through air layering - roots were observed in the dyna balls. Samples were taken to develop ex situ collections at Thohoyandou National Botanical Garden, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden and KwaZulu Natal National Botanical Garden.

A seed scientist stood amongst the branches of a tree adjusting a labelled device in the tree — Ntsakisi Masia (MSBP: Seed Conservation Technician) monitoring the experiment. (Photo: Ntsakisi Masia).

A tree branch with shiny oval berries on wrapped in a mesh bag — Bagged seeds of *Brackenridgea zanguebarica*. (Photo: Ntsakisi Masia).

Tulbaghia cominsii by Naomi Mdayi (SANBI)

Tulbaghia cominsii is listed as Critically Endangered on the Red List of South African Plants. This species is currently growing in one small patch along the N2 road in King Williams Town. This species grows on unprotected land and is at high risk of extinction since only one locality is known. The MSBP Seed Conservation Technician, Sibahle Gumede aimed to collect seeds for Tulbaghia cominsii conservation and for propagation in Kwelera National Botanical Gardens, to later restore to the wild. The project is still in the early phases of monitoring and targeting seeds. Sibahle Gumede collected the seeds of Tulbaghia cominsii between April and June 2021. On 13 August 2021 Sibahle Gumede and Nomama Mei started germination trials. Monitoring of the trials took place, and to date no seedlings have emerged. This could be due to a number of reasons, including the facilities used for germination. Sibahle Gumede is liaising with horticulturists from the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University to assist with germination, as the university has better nursery facilities.

A flowering stem with two terminal flowers. Each flower is a white to pale yellow colour with 6 perianth segments plus a corona of 3 free scales — *Tulbaghia cominsii* Critically Endangered, Presumed Extinct. (Photo: James Deacon).

Syncolostemon incanus

Syncolostemon incanus is a sparsely branched shrub, about 0.6 m tall. It occurs in the neighbourhood of the small town of Kaapsehoop in Mpumalanga. Syncolostemon incanus is assessed as Endangered (EN) in the wild. It is estimated that the population has been reduced by 50% in the past 100 years, based on the evidence that 76% of its habitat has been lost to forestry plantations and of the three known local locations, only one remains. Syncolostemon incanus leaves and flowers are used in potpourri mixture to provide a gentle natural scent in the home. The seeds and cuttings of this threatened species were collected in Kaapsehoop town in Mpumalanga Province in November 2021. Fergy Nkadimeng, the Seed Conservation Technician for the MSBP based in Pretoria National Botanical Garden in the Gauteng Province was joined by Tumelo Mofokeng and Bilaal Mansell-Jones, both from Pretoria National Botanical Garden on a trip to collect this species. Cuttings were collected to be propagated and grown in the Pretoria Garden as living collection. Unfortunately, these cuttings did not survive; propagation was attempted again using a different media and again, the roots did not develop. Another trial is planned for later in the season, when the seeds are ready for collection. Collections of Syncolostemon incanus represent a new species for at the MSBP

A spread of small oval seeds, ranging in colour from medium to dark brown — *Sycolostemon incanus* seeds. (Photo: Fergy Nkadimeng).

Opportunity for students and interns within the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MBSP) to get involved with the Samara e-newsletter

We’re looking to hear from you for the next Samara e-newsletter!

In this issue, Ching-Yuan Hung, a student intern who has recently finished a placement at the Millennium Seed Bank, has written about the project she undertook, focusing on seeds of the Kalanchoe genus. We would like to expand this, encouraging and supporting other students and interns across the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership to get involved with the Samara e-newsletter, including offering an opportunity to conduct an interview for the e-newsletter.

You could either interview someone at your own institution or we can pair you up with someone else at a different organisation within the MSBP. The editors of the Samara e-newsletter will be on hand to help throughout the process. The interview does not have to be done in English, we can add an English transcript to it during editing (both language versions will be published within the e-newsletter).

Please do share this with those who might be interested. If you would like to get involved or would like further details, please email us your name and organisation.

Equally, if you would be open to being interviewed by a student/ intern please let us know at samara@kew.org !

Issue 6: June 2023

In this issue we hear about field adventures in Indonesia collecting banana seeds and an invasive species in South Africa. In stories from across the MSBP we find out about a new exhibition on seed banking at the Canary Islands Botanical Gardens and plans for a partnership wide workshop on seed distribution. Rowan and Arthur (MSB interns) spoke with Dr Amelia Martyn Yensen, National Coordinator of the Australian Seed Bank Partnership, about her new role for "An interview with …". In the 2022 MSBP partnership questionnaire seed bank profiles were suggested as something you might like to see in the Samara E-newsletter, kicking off this new series we hear about the seed bank at UNAM, Mexico (available in Spanish and English). In News and Events we update on upcoming training courses at the MSB and how students and interns can get involved with the Samara e-newsletter.

A display wall with nine sets of images. Each set consists of a small square image of the plant, a small circular image of the plants seed and a large rectangular image of the seed magnified — Native species of the Canary islands seed display. (Photo credit: Miguel Angel González).

A stem with whorls of small greeny yellow wild bananas lying next to a banana flower — *Musa acuminata* var. *rutilifes* fruit and flower, Indonesia. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A branching stem with many opposite dark green leaves with a prominant central vein. The stem also has several pink buds present generally clustered towards the ends of the stem and two open 5 petalled flowers further down the stem. — *Cryptostegia madagascariensis*, South Africa. (Photo credit: C. Mafuwane).

A white 4x4 truck with the back modified with a camping attachment. A rock has been placed behind the front wheel and a person is stood on top of the camping section with a pole pruner seed collecting from a tree — UNAM Seed bank vehicle for survey and seed collecting, Mexico. (Photo: Isela Rodríguez Arévalo, FESI-UNAM).

Indonesia is part of the centre of origin and diversity of bananas, and therefore has a large number of both wild species and cultivars. Banana cultivars and landraces are mostly seedless. In Indonesia, they are extensively grown in home gardens, and very little as an estate crop (mostly Cavendish). Meanwhile, wild bananas are seeded and are commonly found in the wild forests. Conservation of wild bananas is essential to ensure the future of the modern crop. Conservation of crop wild relatives through seed collection is a suitable strategy to conserve germplasm, and conservation in gene banks is recommended as they are the reservoir of traits and genes required to face emerging abiotic and biotic stresses (Singh et al. 2021). Seed collection from wild populations will help maintain the high genetic diversity needed for further utilisation (Kallow et al. 2021). Wild bananas are under considerable threat due to habitat destruction, forest fragmentation and conversion, and other anthropogenic disturbances.

Seed collecting of wild bananas along with associated species has been conducted in two wild forests in Indonesia: Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, East Java (2020) and Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, North Sulawesi and Gorontalo (2022). Special thanks to the Arcadia Fund - a charitable fund of Lisbet Rausing and Peter Baldwin for providing expedition funds as part of the project ‘Threatened Biodiversity Hotspots Programme, Indonesia’, managed through the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park is located in four regencies of East Java Province - Malang, Pasuruan, Probolinggo and Lumajang. It covers an area of 50,276 ha. This National Park has various tropical rainforest ecosystem types including lowland, sub-montane, montane and sub-alpine, with altitudes ranging from 750-3,676 m asl (Ariyanti et al. 2012). Seed collecting was conducted in October and November 2020.

A man climbing up into the forest canopy on a woody vine. — Field activities in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park: collecting fruits of associated species. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

Four seed people sat in a group, one of the group is writing on clip board whilst another is holding a tape measure along the length of a bunch of bananas. A third person is holding the tip of a banana flower — Field activities in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park: morphological characterisation of wild bananas. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

Six people sat around a table covered with various items from a seed collecting trip. One person is consulting a reference book, three people are counting seeds, another person is preparing a herbarium specimen — Field activities in Bromo Tenggar Semeru National Park: herbarium processing and seed extraction. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

The two wild banana species collected in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park were both varieties of Musa acuminata - Musa acuminata var. nakaii Nasution and Musa acuminata var. rutilifes (Back.) Nasution. M. acuminata var. nakaii is easily distinguished by the purplish colour beneath the leaf and its hairy fruit. The leaves resemble var. zebrina, but differ in male bud tip and pericarp. Meanwhile, M. acuminata var. rutilifes is distinguished by the yellowish green colour of the petioles, midrib and leaves; and its small fruit with bottle-necked tip. These two varieties are widely distributed in Java, in open forest or along streams, at 50-1,500 m asl (Nasution, 1991; Hapsari, 2014). The associated species collected were mostly shrubs such as Acronychia trifoliolata, Eumachia montana, Ficus montana, Impatiens platypetala, Ricinus communis, Pollia hasskarlii, Phytolacca icosandra, Solanum betaceum, and Zapoteca tetragona.

A stem with whorls of small greeny yellow wild bananas lying next to a banana flower. Below is a cross section of a curved wild banana showing two rows of seeds along each half. The banana is about 12cm long. — *Musa acuminata* var. *rutilifes* collected from Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana and Dewi Ayu Lestari).

A stem with whorls of green wild bananas. The bananas are covered with sparse black spots. Lying next to the bananas is a banana flower. Below is a close up of the longitundial cross section of a wild banana fruit. The fruit is relatively straight, approximately 13cm long and each half shows two rows of seeds amongst the flesh. — *Musa acuminata* var. *nakaii* collected from Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana and Dewi Ayu Lestari).

A fruiting sedge stem with multiple shoots each ending with a male flower with whorls of small orange fruits between the male flower and the main stem. — *Carex baccans* an associated species of wild bananas from Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A glossy pointed serated leaf next to a branch with one black and four white small fruits. The fruits are pear shaped with no stalk from the stem. — *Acronychia trifoliata* an associated species of wild bananas from Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A brown woody stem with four oppositely arranged small round fruits down the length. Each fruit is on a short stalk and they vary from orange to red in colour. — *Ficus montana* an associated species of wild bananas from Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A pink zygomorphic flower with partially divided petals. The leaves of the plant are in whorls of three and are oval with an elongated tip and a serated edge. — *Impatiens platypetala* an associated species of wild banana from Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A spheroid shaped seed with an uneven edge and surface, light brown in colour. — Seed of *Eumachia montana* an associated species of wild bananas from Bromo Tengger Seneru National Park. (Photo credit: Dewi Ayu Lestari).

An uneven oval shaped seed with a dark matt brown surface — Seed of *Pollia hasskarlii* an associated species of wild bananas from Bromo Tengger Seneru National Park. (Photo credit: Dewi Ayu Lestari).

A more or less circular shaped seed with a shiny black surface. — Seed of *Phytolacca icosandra* an associated species of wild bananas from Bromo Tengger Seneru National Park. (Photo credit: Dewi Ayu Lestari).

Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park is the largest terrestrial conservation area in Sulawesi with an area of 282,089 ha. Administratively, this National Park is located in two provinces - North Sulawesi and Gorontalo. The biodiversity in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park represents the richness and uniqueness of the flora and fauna of the Wallacea (Cannon et al. 2007). A seed collecting mission was conducted in September 2022.

Two seed collectors standing either side of a wild banana plant. A stem of green wild banana fruits is bending down away from the plant. The seed collectors are holding up one of the banana plant leaves. — Collecting fruits of wild bananas in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A pair of hands holding an open seed pod. They are using their thumbs to remove the seeds. They are above a blue tray containing lots of split open seed pods and loose seeds. — Seed extraction. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

Three sheets of newspaper laid out in a row on the floor. A pair of hands are laying out flat a plant on the central sheet. — Herbarium preparation. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

Wild bananas collected from Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park were identified as Musa acuminata var. tomentosa (K.Sch.) Nasution and Musa acuminata ssp. banksii (F.Muell.) N.W. Simmonds. M. acuminata var. tomentosa is endemic to Sulawesi, distributed in lowland areas up to 600 m asl (Nasution, 1991). It is distinguished by its slightly angled to almost horizontal and spiral bunch- shape (all fruit is attached to a unique crown coiled around the stalk), lax to compact appearance, and blunt fruit tip. M. acuminata ssp. banksii is native to New Guinea, NE. Queensland, and Samoa. It has heavy bunches hanging downwards, a compact to very compact appearance, the fruit are curved towards the stalk and can be almost vertical, and the fruit are curved but are straight in the distal and pointed tips.

Associated species collected from Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park were trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants and orchids, including Begonia gambutensis, Begonia mendumae, Celosia argentea, Crotalaria juncea, Curculigo latifolia, Ficus ampelos, Hellenia speciosa, Homonoia riparia, Pollia thyrsiflora, Spathoglottis plicata, and Senna tora. B. mendumae is endemic to Sulawesi and has been proposed for IUCN category Vulnerable D2. It has unique asymmetric leaves, which are ovate with an acute tip, deep green in the centre and around the margins with darker mottling on the veins, a paler band running inside the margin; and tepals which are dusky pink combined with orange anthers and stigmas which make it very attractive (Hughes, 2006).

A stem with 5 distinct whorls of green wild bananas lying on grass. An inset image shows a longitudinal dissection of the inside of a wild banana with each side have two rows of seeds. The fruit is arched. — Wild banana (*Musa acuminata* ssp. *banksii*) collected from Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A stem from a wild banana plant lying on the forest floor. The stem has many dark yellow bananas with brown spots and overripe black bananas on. A inset image shows a longitudinal cross section of an individual banana. The banana is relatively straight with a curved tip. Each half has two rows of small black seeds amongst the flesh. — Wild banana (*Musa acuminata* var. *tomentosa*) collected from Bogani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

Several spikes of small orange fruits emerging from amongst long lanceolate leaves. — *Homonoia riparia*, an associated species of the wild bananas in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A small purple coloured spikey mericarp emerging from the leaf axil. The leaf has a serrate margin. — *Urena lobata*, an associated species of the wild bananas in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

Three round orange fruits coming off a branch. The branch is alongside others with entire simple leaves. — *Ficus ampelos*, an associated species of the wild bananas in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A variagated asymmetrical leaf ending in point. The centre of the leaf is dark green with a light green strip around the edge. — *Begonia mendumae*, an associated species of the wild bananas in Botani Nani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A black rectangular shaped seed ending in a point. — Seed of *Hellenia speciosa* an associated species of the wild banana collected from Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Dewi Ayu Lestari).

A black unequal sided pentagon shaped seed — Seed of *Pollia thyrsiflora* an associated species of the wild banana collected from Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Dewi Ayu Lestari).

A dark brown smooth cylinder shaped seed — Seed of *Senna tora* an associated species of the wild banana collected from Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. (Photo credit: Dewi Ayu Lestari).

Seeds collected from both locations are now stored at the Seed Bank of Purwodadi Botanic Garden – BRIN, with duplication to the Seed Bank of Bogor Botanic Garden – BRIN, for further studies. Several seed studies are currently underway including periodic seed germination and viability testing, seed storage behaviour, seed morphometry characterisation, seed dormancy breaking and seed physiology and biochemistry. To date, seed studies from this project have resulted in two scientific articles published in national and international journals: Renjana et al. (2021) and Trimanto et al. (2022), respectively. One of the research topics has been presented at the Australasian Seed Science Conference 2021.

A round blue instrument lying on a desk with a black rubber tube attached to one end. The rubber tube coils round and is attached to a probe held within a glass vial. At the bottom of the glass vial is a layer of small seeds — Seed banking activities in Purwodadi Botanic Garden, eRH measurement. (Photo credit: Elok Rifqi Firdiana).

An annotated cross section of a seed. The seed coat appears black and the centre of the seed is white with a darker space in the very centre. The diametre of the seed cross section is 0.49mm on one half and 0.43mm on the other. The seed coat thickness is 0.02mm on one half and 0.01mm on the second half. The length of the area in the very centre of the seed is 0.17mm on one half and 0.10mm on the second half — Seed morphometry characterisation. (Photo credit: Dewi Ayu Lestari).

Nine people sat around a table covered with paper, tape and dried plants. Some of the people are laying out the dried plants on white sheets of paper. — Herbarium mounting. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A row of seven people stood behind a raised seed bed sowing seeds into the compost. In front of some of them are rows of plant labels — Sowing the seeds for germination and viability test. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

Lots of seedlings at the cotyledon stage. Some trays have more seedlings in than others. They are all labelled with which plant labels which can't be read — Seedlings of wild banana. (Photo credit: Elga Renjana).

A petri dish lined with paper containing seedlings just germinated. The small brown seeds have not been fully shed from many of the seedlings which have them still attached to one of their leaves — Seedlings of associated species. (Photo credit: Dewi Ayu Lestari).

References

Ariyanti, E.E., Irawanto, R., Hapsari, L. & Mudiana, D. (2012) Distribution of Syzygium spp. (Klampok) in some areas of Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. East Java. Proc. Soc. Indon. Biodiv. Intl. Conf. 1: 135-142.
Cannon, C.H., Summers, M., Harting, R.J. & Kessler, P.J.A. (2007) Developing conservation priorities based on forest type, condition, and threats in a poorly known ecoregion: Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biotropica. 39(6): 747-759.
Hapsari, L. (2014) Wild Musa species collection of Purwodadi Botanic Garden: Inventory and its morpho-taxonomic review. J. Trop. Life Sci.. 4(1): 70-81.
Hughes, M. (2006) Four new species of Begonia (Begoniaceae) from Sulawesi. Edinburgh J. Bot.. 63(2&3): 191-199.
Kallow, S., Panis, B., Vu, D.T., Paofa, J., Mertens, A., Swennen, R. & Janssens, S.B. (2021) Maximising genetic representation in seed collections from populations of self and cross-pollinated banana wild relatives. BMC Plant. Biol.. 21: 415.
Nasution, R.E. (1991) A taxonomic study of the species Musa acuminata Colla with its intraspecific taxa in Indonesia. Memoirs of Tokyo University of Agriculture. 32: 1-122.
Renjana, E., Rahadiantoro, A., Ningrum, L.W., Lestari, D.A., Firdiana, E.R., Trimanto, Mas’udah S. & Hapsari. L. (2021) Inventory, morphological characterization, and seed viability test of Pacar Tere (Impatiens platypetala Lindl.) from the exploration in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. J. Pemuliaan Tan. Hut.. 15(1): 23-34.
Singh, S., Agrawal, A., Kumar, R., Thangjam, R. & John K.J. (2021) Seed storage behaviour of Musa balbisiana Colla, a wild progenitor of bananas and plantains – Implications for ex situ germplasm conservation. Sci. Hort.,. 280: 109926.
Trimanto, Renjana, E., Lestari, D.A., Firdiana, E.R., Mas’udah, S., Rahadiantoro, A., Ningrum, L.W. & Hapsari, L. (2022) Morphological characterisation and seed germination study of wild banana Musa acuminata var. flava (Ridl.) Nasution. J. Trop. Biodiv. Biotech.. 7(1): jtbb66645.

Cryptostegia madagascariensis is known as Madagascar rubber vine from the Apocynaceae family. The species is a perennial plant and native to North-Western Madagascar and invasive in Hawai'i and Australia. Cryptostegia madagascariensis is used as an ornamental plant due to its purple pinkish flowers. In other countries is it used as medicinal plants to cure ulcer and skin problems such as scabies. It spreads through seeds and flood water movement (McFadyen & Harvey, 1991; Starr, Kim & Lloyd, 2003). Cryptostegia madagascariensis is regarded as a 1b invasive species in South Africa and is a problem in three of the nine provinces of South Africa which are: Mpumalanga, Limpopo, and Northwest Province. No risk analysis has been conducted for the species in South Africa, but Cryptostegia madagascariensis tends to cover and climb trees. The species is poisonous to human beings and livestock. It may cause coughing and swelling of the nose when encountered as well as a blister to the eyelids (McFadyen & Harvey, 1991).

10 oval shaped leaves each ending in a point arranged in pairs along a central stem. Each leaf has a prominant central vein. — *Cryptostegia madagascariensis* plant spotted in Komatipoort. (Photo credit: C. Mafuwane).

Cryptostegia madagascariensis has thick glossy and dark green leaves which are 2-11cm long and leathery. It has a pink to light purple tubular flower (30-40mm long) with five petals. The woody vine has milky sap, its stems are greyish-brown and have a whitish warty spots. It produces pods, 50-90mm long which contain numerous seeds. The shape of the seeds are oval-like (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005; McFadyen & Harvey, 1991). In South Africa Cryptostegia madagascariensis is treated mechanically and chemical is applied to reduce the spread of Cryptostegia madagascariensis.

Two unripe tear drop shaped seed pods opposite each other on the end of a stem — *Cryptostegia madagascariensis* plant spotted in Komatipoort. (Photo credit: C. Mafuwane).

Cryptostegia madagascariensis is naturalised and grows well in dry forests, roadsides, moist forests, rainforests, waterways, and waste areas. In communities, it grows along the fences as a climber. The public are encouraged to report sightings of this species as there is a need to protect local biodiversity. Reports of populations of Cryptostegia madagascariensis and other suspect species in South Africa are collected by the South African National Biodiversity Institute Directorate on Biodiversity Evidence (SANBI-DBE).

References

Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. (2005) Vines and climbing plants of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. 51: 483.
Foxcroft, L.C., Richardson, D.M. & Wilson, J.R.U. (2007) Ornamental plants as invasive aliens: problems and solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environmental Management. 41(1): 32-51.
https://www.cabi.org/isc/abstract/20053061266
MacFadyen, R.E. & Harvey, G.J. (1991) Rubber vine, Calystegia grandiflora, A major threat to natural ecosystems in Northern Australia. In: Eds. Centre, T.D., Doren, R.F., Hofstetter, R.L., Myers, R.L., & Whiteaker, L. Proceedings of the Symposium on Exotic Pest Plants, November 2-4, 1988, Miami, Florida. United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, USA.
Starr, F., Kim, S. & Lloyd, L. (2003) Cryptostegia spp. Rubber vine, Asclepiadaceae. Plants of Hawai'i, PIER report. http://www.hear.org/Pier/pdf/pohreports/cryptostegia_spp.pdf.

A display board titled Banco de Germoplasma Procesamos capsulas de biodiversidad. The board shows the transition from collecting seeds in the field with photos of mountainous areas and people collecting seeds, through to recieving seeds at the herbarium with photos of herbarium presses and barcodes. The board then moves onto to seed processing with images of laboratory equipment for seed cleaning including an aspirator. Following this it moves onto seed drying with photos of seeds in test tubes along with orange indicator silica gel. The next part looks at x-ray and photography of the seeds before moving onto viability testing with images of seeds plated onto petri-dishes and seedlings growing in soil and also in petri-dishes. — Figure 1: How seed banks process biodiversity. (Photo credit: Miguel Ángel González).

The Seed Bank of the “Viera y Clavijo” Botanical Garden recently inaugurated a new exhibition. The exhibition, carried out jointly with the Department of Environmental Education, aims to highlight the importance of seed conservation in germplasm banks as a way to conserve biodiversity.

It is organised into different panels that run through the hall of the germplasm bank. In the first introductory panel, visitors can see the importance that seeds have had and continue to have for humanity – seeds are considered as the basis of civilisation. A timeline indicates various milestones in the evolutionary history of seeds, from the appearance of the first seed plants approximately 350 million years ago, through the first cases of plant domestication by humanity on different parts of the planet (approximately 10,000 years ago), up to the appearance of germplasm banks.

The next panel tells us about how seeds are life carriers, how they are part of the biological cycle of plants, and how, with such a simple structure (seed coat, cotyledons and embryo), they can travel thousands of kilometres using the different forms of dispersal available to them.

Next, we find a panel that explains how biodiversity is processed in germplasm banks to preserve the viability of the seeds for as long as possible (Figure 1). In this panel, we see the different processes that take place, from sampling in the field to when the seeds are packaged and stored at -20°C, ensuring the traceability of the material in all phases of the process.

The relevance of germplasm banks for ex situ conservation as reservoirs of biodiversity is reflected in the following panel, where some of the most important seed banks, of the more than 350 that exist in 74 countries around the world, are located. In these germplasm banks, in addition to conserving wild species and crops, information on natural agricultural practices, natural medicinal uses, and culturally diverse species are also preserved.

The wealth of nature and biodiversity is reflected in the following panel, where images of seeds of endemic species from the Canary Islands under a stereoscopic microscope and an electronic microscope are displayed (Figure 2). In addition to showing the great diversity of seeds, reflected in their sizes, shapes, and colours, this section reveals the impressive world seeds hide inside. This panel conveys to those who visit the exhibition the idea that biodiversity is found at different scales from species and, ecosystems, to genetic and morphological diversity.

Next to the biodiversity section, we find a panel on threats to biodiversity: degrading ecosystems. Here are reflected the main threats currently to species: introduced species, habitat alteration and destruction, and over-exploitation. In this area, human beings see themselves as one of the main threats to biodiversity.

The purpose of this exhibition is to introduce visitors to the world of seeds, their importance in the biological cycle of plants, their biology, conservation, and diversity which travel through time and space.

A wall of the exhibition with the phrase La rigueza de la Naturaleza biodiversidad. The wall is covered in pictures of different species seeds at different scales, from on the plant to the individual seeds and then the seeds photographed under an SEM microscope. Infront of the display panel is a glass cabinet with a double coconut in. — Figure 2: The great diversity of the seeds. (Photo credit: Miguel Ángel González).

A grey crate on a work bench filled with open paper bags. The paper bags have foil packets inside. One of the paper bags has Triticum written on it — Seeds packaged in foil bags ready for shipping. (Photo: Oriole Wagstaff, RBG Kew).

As mentioned in the Update on actions from the 2022 MSBP partner questionnaire article in the last issue of the Samara e-newsletter, we are planning an online partnership wide workshop on seed distribution.

The aim of the workshop will be to empower everyone within the MSBP to undertake the distribution of seeds and to grow demand for a wider range of species. As part of the workshop, we hope to bring together many case studies of different approaches to seed distribution from across the partnership, including different tools available to help. In addition, we will facilitate discussion through break-out sessions focussed on the challenges we all face in seed distribution. We recognise that aims and scales of seed distribution can vary drastically from small seed number requests primarily for standard research, through to larger scale to support restoration requiring growing out of collections. Our hope is that through the workshop, new working relationships can be developed to support each other with seed distribution. Overall, we will bring together as much of the information from the workshop as possible into a technical information sheet.

If this workshop goes well, hopefully workshops will be something we can run more frequently across the partnership. Timing the event will be one of the more challenging aspects and we will consider a variety of different options to make it as accessible to all as possible.

Further details will be released in the coming months. In the mean time, if you have any ideas of suggestions for the workshop please contact your MSB country coordinator or email samara@kew.org .

Interview by MSB Kew interns Rowan Black and Arthur Butler

Dr Amelia Martyn Yenson is the new national coordinator of the Australian Seed Bank Partnership (ASBP). The partnership is an alliance of botanic gardens, seed banks, non-government organisations and state conservation agencies. The aim is for national collaboration to advance conservation and seed banking to look after Australia’s natural heritage.

Amelia smiling — Dr Amelia Martyn Yenson. (Photo credit: Dandesigns).

Amelia infront of a glass fronted laboratory — Dr Amelia Martyn Yenson. (Photo: Michael Lawrence-Taylor).

Having recently started the role, what are you most looking forward to?

This is my third week on the job, so there is lots I'm looking forward to! I love talking to other plant lovers and working with botanic gardens is such a privilege. I've been involved in the Australian seed banking effort and the Millennium Seed Bank project since 2004. So, I've developed networks across the partnership, but I'm looking forward to meeting new people with different roles in ASBP. I'm interested in what we can do collectively … what resources and training opportunities we can advocate for and learning about what people do daily in their seed banks, their challenges, and successes, and how the Partnership can best support them.

With the partnership's success so far, could you see the expansion of the collaboration on a regional level (Australasia's Oceania) rather than a purely country level?

We've built a strong network in Australia and have long been documenting our understanding of seed biology, germination, dormancy, and storage behaviour. There is plenty of interest across Oceania in better collaboration. In my previous role working for the Australian Network for Plant Conservation, I was involved in discussions at the Australasian Seed Science Conference and the 7th Global Botanic Gardens Congress. We supported ASBP as they began to explore what a broader network could look like, and with Aisyah's support from the MSBP, it's an area we’d like to continue to progress. We must understand what partners want from collaboration and the challenges they face due to limited time and resources, with many already stretched and overwhelmed by the day-to-day demands of conservation.

With the support of ASBP, we organized a Fenner Conference for the Environment funded by the Australian Academy of Science, within the Australasian Seed Science Conference in 2021. With their support, we made it a free event allowing regional participation. There was great interest and collaborative knowledge-sharing by researchers and national and international collaborators. Informal networking is common at the individual level for personal research networks, but links could be formalized to broaden the partnership and its impact.

With a rich history and knowledge of Australia's wildlife and plants, how are indigenous people and their knowledge being integrated into the work you do across the partnerships?

We must acknowledge First Nations peoples and their extensive knowledge, having lived and cared for Australia's Country for tens of thousands of years. This means the timeframe we have been practicing conservation and the duration that we aim to store seed occupies only a fraction of this timeline of care. Our partners have been fortunate to develop collaborations with First Nations peoples through a range of projects over the last few years.

Within Australia's First Nations cultures, there are hundreds of languages and peoples who have unique connections to their local environment. While we aim to work Australia-wide, starting at a local level with our partners already engaging with First Nations communities is essential. We aim to understand what they would want from a partnership and where they would like support. There is still a lot to learn and it's essential to respect the intellectual property developed in each collaboration.

The recent Florabank guidelines include a chapter about indigenous seed use and respectful working methods through an approach known as "Right Way collaboration". The chapter was led by Stephen van Leeuwen, a respected First Nations person; thus, it's a resource that we can confidently use and share. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and other Australian organisations have produced informative documents on engaging respectfully and "Right-Way.” It's a continuous learning journey for us, but the best start is to nurture those individual connections and help our partners who work on Country to do what they already do with increased and ongoing support.

Was there a specific moment where you were like, "Yep", I know this is what I want to do for my career?

I was always interested in plants. As a child, my family would take me to the Royal National Park, an old, well-established National Park close to Sydney, where we would go on picnics and bush walks. When I finished high school, I remember sitting in the school hall with a manual listing all the university courses, and for the first time, the University of Sydney offered a Bachelor of Horticultural Science. It listed all the things we would learn, which sounded terrific. It also said we might have the opportunity to go to Kew, and I thought, oh my gosh, this is perfect; this is the course I'm applying for!

Amelia, stood amongst plants smiling and waving to the camera. She is wearing a beige baseball cap, a pink scarf and carrying a red rucksack — Amongst the plants. (Photo credit: H. Saquet).

Is there any advice you can give a young person looking to get into seed science or plant conservation?

It's about following your passion and doing what you love. I wanted to work with Australian plants because they're beautiful, and I have since realized through my experience how important they are to ecosystem function.

Plants are fascinating, and sharing this excitement with other people is essential. This can be tricky, as I've noticed with my kids that sometimes the first thing they hear about the environment is ‘doom and gloom’. Thus, they are worried or scared before they even have a chance to experience the incredible diversity, the scents, the sights, the colours, and how wonderful nature is. We must keep that excitement alive while also making space for those hard conversations in our work together. There is still much to learn, so my colleagues and I will never be bored!

How is climate change challenging conservation in Australia outside of some of the more well-known impacts like increased incidence and ferocity of bushfires?

Climate change exacerbates all the processes that threaten biodiversity and plants, like land use change, changing fire regimes, pests, and diseases. The combined effect of these threats is causing the most damage. Within the partnership, we have projects focusing on the areas most at risk from this rapid change.

For instance, our partners study tropical mountain top plants and this is often the first opportunity to collect plant material or study the seed biology of these species. Their seed biology can be challenging, and we cannot always collect seeds, so instead they may collect material to establish living collections. Rainforests including tropical mountain tops and alpine areas have a high potential for climate change impacts, and the species in those habitats are at risk. This area of research is rapidly evolving, with numerous experts studying its impacts in and around Australia.

How often do you come across exceptional species in your projects? What problems are they causing?

This is a real area of interest for me and my colleagues. The focus of the Fenner Conference for the Environment was exceptional species. On the second day, we held an expert workshop, where based on Valerie Pence's framework (Pence et al. 2022 Biological Conservation), we started making a running list of exceptional species in Australia. The framework is a useful tool to help determine the best form of ex situ conservation for a non-orthodox species. Before starting my new job, my colleagues and I submitted a paper that applies the exceptional species framework in Australia, creating a workflow that will hopefully lead to improvements in ex situ collections and prioritize research.

To what extent do commercial partnerships play a role within the network, say with regeneration and restoration initiatives tied with the mining industry?

Government agencies often fund conservation initiatives, on a national basis and at State and Territory levels. Due to the scale of the biodiversity crisis we face, we also rely on non-government agencies, commercial partners, and philanthropic initiatives to fund projects.

In terms of mining companies, they are legally responsible for restoration. Some partners have a level of collaboration with mining companies who invest in best-practice, but our conservation seed banks are generally not equipped to practice large-scale restoration because collections are mostly small. These projects require scaling up from small packets to tons of seed. The mining industry does try to encourage natural seed regeneration from the soil seed bank to reduce reliance on tubestock planting and direct seeding.

How do you see technology changing the way we bank seed? Will robots, let's say, be running our seed banks in 10 to 20 years?

People will always have a role because seeds are so diverse that you will always need people to feed the machines the correct information and do the delicate, hands-on work! I'm interested in how new technologies are used in crop gene banks to facilitate their testing and regeneration at scale.

I'm keen to learn more about how technology can be used for broad-scale restoration. In Australia, a company called ‘AirSeed’ uses drones for restoration activities. Some scientists are looking at the best evidence-based ways to use drones, for example, with seed collection, they have the potential to help collect from inaccessible populations.

Our final question, possibly the most important, which seed could you throw the furthest?

I won't be the one to throw it; I will let my 13-year-old cricket-mad son throw it! You don't want something that's wind-dispersed as it would fly away, and you don't want something massive like Coco-de-Mer (Lodoicea maldivica) because it's too big. I think something that could fit in my hand like a Black Bean tree seed (Castanospermum australe) would be a nice size and shape to throw.

Isela Rodríguez Arévalo, Aramando Ponce Vargas (FESI-UNAM) & Michael Way (RBG Kew)

This article is available in english and spanish

Este artículo está disponible en inglés y español.

English

To reduce the risk of extinction of threatened plant species, the Banco de Semillas Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México FESI-UNAM (BS) was founded in Mexico in 2002, with the help and financial support of the Millennium Seed Bank of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

In the seed bank collections we maintain viable populations of wild and native Mexican species, especially those at risk. The BS is at the FESI campus in Tlalnepantla in the northwest of Mexico City and is linked to the main University City in the south of the city, and with other UNAM centres around the country.

Over time, the BS has conserved native and wild flora by region (Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley, Sierra Queretana, Sonoran Desert, etc.). For the past 10 years, the focus of the collections has been on useful trees in Mexico, particularly in the state of Veracruz, as it is a "hotspot" for the diversity of Mexican trees.

The management of the collections in the BS follow international quality standards stipulated by ISTA and procedures are evaluated by the Millennium Seed Bank standards team.

Equipment is expanded and updated with each project, currently the BS has a dry room (modified from a large growth chamber), seven freezers for long-term storage and two germination incubators for viability tests.

A lab bench with 2 dissecting microscopes and a pair of scientific scales on — Microscope bench for seed quality analysis. (Photo: Lilia Garcia Rojas, FESI-UNAM).

In addition to FESI research and management staff, there are project funded technician positions and currently 11 students who help with the manual processing of collections. There is also a small herbarium (IZTA) and a large greenhouse which has been used for research and propagation experiments.

8 people stood in a row smiling. Seven are wearing white lab coats with UNAM written on them. Above them on a building is written Unidad de Biotecnologia y prototipos — Seed bank personnel at FESI-UNAM. From right to left, Juliana Álvarez Lara, Laura Campos Arias, Álvaro Casa-Madrid, Lilia García Rojas, Isela Rodríguez Arévalo, Alejandra Velázquez Mauleón, Iván Plascencia y Jessica Snell Cordero. (Photo: Lilia Garcia Rojas, FESI-UNAM).

It is estimated that in Mexico there are a total of 23,314 species of vascular plants, and after 20 years of continuous work, the BS collection totals 2,756 species, that is, 11.82% of the national vascular flora. The total number of accessions conserved is 4,980 and they belong to 180 botanical families and 985 genera, which have been collected from 26 of the 32 states in the country.

A general analysis of the conservation status of the collections showed that 864 species, that is, 31.35%, are endemic to Mexico. In accordance with official Mexican standards, this includes species under some category of risk, from which 31 species are subject to special protection, 28 species are classified as threatened and 15 are in danger of extinction. Thus, 2.7% of the conserved species are at some type of risk.

The families in danger of extinction with the largest number of species and protected in the BS are: Fabaceae, Fouquieriaceae, Pinaceae and Zamiaceae, all families that are widely exploited to take advantage of their wood or for use as ornamental species.

A row of white tables inside a greenhouse. On the tables are two rows of soil filled plant pots. A scientist is stood behind the bench holding a watering can and a brown paper bag — Propagation and physiology experiments in the FESI-UNAM greenhouse. (Photo: Cesar Flores, FESI-UNAM).

The Asteraceae family is the best represented in the BS, however, only two of its species are under some category of risk, these are: Hazardia orcuttii and Zinnia violaea.

One of the best represented genera in the BS is Agave, and particularly one of its species, A. peacockii. This species is subject to special protection (through NOM-059), a situation that is related to its use for the production of one of the most famous alcoholic beverages in the country, Mezcal. This situation is aggravated as the species is endemic to Mexico.

Undoubtedly, the conservation efforts of the BS are vital and fundamental to safeguard the native and wild biodiversity of this megadiverse country. Mexico has the possibility of safeguarding its plant genetic resources in the BS, and of participating in the great Millennium Seed Bank Partnership. Collaborations like these must continue and strengthen to minimize the effects of human intervention in the disappearance of native plant species around the world.

Español

Con el objeto de reducir las posibilidades de extinción de especies con problemas de conservación, surgió en 2002 el Banco de Semillas Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México FESI-UNAM (BS) en México, con el apoyo y financiamiento del Millenium Seed Bank del real Jardín Botánico de Kew. En esta colección mantenemos viables poblaciones de especies silvestres y nativas, especialmente las que viven bajo algún tipo de amenaza. El BS se encuentra ubicado en la Facultad de Estudios Superiores, campus Iztacala en Tlalnepantla, al NW de la Ciudad de México.

A lo largo del tiempo, el BS ha conservado flora nativa y silvestre de manera regional (Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán, Sierra Queretana, Desierto Sonorense, etc.). Desde hace 10 años, el enfoque de las colectas se ha centrado en árboles útiles de México, particularmente en el estado de Veracruz, por tratarse de un “hotspot” para la diversidad de áboles mexicanos.

Una camióneta 4x4 blanca con la parte trasera modificada con un accesorio para acampar. Se ha colocado una roca detrás de la rueda delantera y una persona está de pie encima de la parte trasera con una podadora de pértiga recolectando semillas de un árbol — Vehículo de banco de semillas para la prospección y recolección de semillas. (Foto: Isela Rodríguez Arévalo, FESI-UNAM).

El manejo de las colecciones en el BS de apega a los estándares internacionales de calidad dictados por la ISTA y evaluados periódicamente por el equipo del Millennium Seed Bank.

El equipo con el que cuenta el BS, se mejora y se incrementa con el desarrollo de cada proyecto, actualmente el BS cuenta con un cuarto de secado con temperatura y humedad controladas, 7 congeladores para el almacenamiento de las colecciones y 2 incubadoras para los análisis de viabilidad.

Una mesa de laboratorio con 2 microscopios de disección y un par de escalas científicas en — Banco de microscopio para análisis de calidad de semillas. (Foto: Lilia Garcia Rojas, FESI-UNAM).

El equipo de investigación y el cuerpo técnico está compuesto por 11 estudiantes que llevan a cabo el procesamiento de las colecciones, 1 colector botánico y taxónomo, un curador especializado en taxonomía y etnobotánica y conservación y un responsable del proyecto especialista en recursos naturales, taxonomía y conservación.

8 personas se pararon en una fila sonriendo. Siete llevan batas blancas de laboratorio con la inscripción UNAM. Sobre ellos en un edificio está escrito Unidad de Biotecnología y prototipos — Personal del banco de semillas en FESI-UNAM. De derecha a izquierda, Juliana Álvarez Lara, Laura Campos Arias, Álvaro Casa-Madrid, Lilia García Rojas, Isela Rodríguez Arévalo, Alejandra Velázquez Mauleón, Iván Plascencia y Jessica Snell Cordero. (Foto: Lilia Garcia Rojas, FESI-UNAM).

Se calcula que en el país hay un total de 23,314 especies de plantas vasculares, actualmente y luego de 20 años de trabajo continuo, la colección del BS está formada por un total de 2,756 especies, es decir, el 11.82% de la flora vascular nacional. El total de nuestras accesiones bajo resguardo es de 4,980 y pertenecen a 180 familias botánicas y 985 géneros, mismas que se han recolectado en 26 de los 32 estados del país.

Un análisis general del estado de conservación que presentan nuestras colecciones, arrojó como resultado que 864 especies, es decir el 31.35%, son especies endémicas de México. De acuerdo con el listado de la Norma Oficial Mexicana 059 (2010), la cual incluye especies bajo alguna categoría de riesgo, resguardamos 31 especies sujetas a protección especial, 28 especies están catalogadas bajo amenaza y 15 se encuentran en peligro de extinción. De manera que el 2.7% de las especies resguardadas, se encuentra bajo algún tipo de riesgo.

Las familias en peligro de extinción con mayor número de especies y resguardadas en el BS son: Fabaceae, Fouquieriaceae, Pinaceae y Zamiaceae, todas, familias que se explotan ampliamente para aprovechar su madera o utilizarlas como especies ornamentales.

Una fila de mesas blancas dentro de un invernadero. Sobre las mesas hay dos filas de macetas llenas de tierra. Un científico está parado detrás del banco sosteniendo una regadera y una bolsa de papel marrón — Experimentos de propagación y fisiología en el invernadero FESI-UNAM. (Foto: Cesar Flores, FESI-UNAM).

La familia Asteraceae es la mejor representada en el BS, sin embargo, solo 2 de sus especies, se encuentran bajo alguna categoría de riesgo, según la NOM 059, éstas son: Hazardia orcuttii y Zinnia violaea, resguardadas en el BS.

Uno de los géneros mejor representados en el BS es, sin duda, el género Agave, y, particularmente, una de sus especies, A. peacockii esta especie se encuentra sujeta a protección especial, de acuerdo con la NOM-059, situación que seguramente está relacionada con su uso para la producción de una de las bebidas alcohólicas más famosas del país, el mezcal. Esta situación se agrava, cuando observamos que se trata de una especie endémica de México.

Sin duda, el esfuerzo de conservación del BS es necesario y fundamental para resguardar la biodiversidad nativa y silvestre de un país megadiverso. México, tiene la posibilidad de resguardar sus recursos genéticos vegetales en el BS, pero también, de participar en el gran proyecto de conservación del Millennium Seed Bank. Proyectos como estos deben seguir existiendo para minimizar los efectos de la intervención humana en la desaparición de especies vegetales nativas en el mundo.

Upcoming training opportunities at the MSB

We are currently looking for participants for two courses taking place later this year.

In September (18^th to 29^th) we will offer our annual Seed Conservation Techniques course which will be fully online this year. Please see Seed Conservation Techniques webpage for further details and apply by the end of June.

For the first time we are also organising a course in plant cryopreservation from the 30^th October to the 9^th November, which will take place at the Millennium Seed Bank and include practical sessions on methods like cryopreservation of embryos and shoot tips. For further information please contact MSB Training: MSBTraining@kew.org .

A scientist in a lab coat and gloves behind a bench with a cyclindrical metal container infront of them. They have a pair of tweezers in each hand holding them inside the cylindrical container. — Handling samples in liquid nitrogen. (Photo credit: Hanna Oldfield).

Opportunity for students and interns within the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MBSP) to get involved with the Samara e-newsletter

We’re looking to hear from you for the next Samara e-newsletter!

In this issue, Rowan and Arthur, two student interns currently on placement at the Millennium Seed Bank, interviewed Dr Amelia Martyn Yenson, the new national coordinator of the Australian Seed Bank Partnership, from their perspective just starting out in their careers. We would like to expand this, encouraging and supporting other students and interns across the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership to get involved with the Samara e-newsletter, including offering an opportunity to conduct an interview for the e-newsletter.

Rowan and Arthurs interview. (Photo: RBG Kew).

Please do share this with those who might be interested. If you would like to get involved or would like further details, please email us your name and organisation.

Equally, if you would be open to being interviewed by a student/ intern please let us know at samara@kew.org !

Recent publications from across the MSBP:

Batista, G.S., Ferraz, M.V., Mazzini-Guedes, R.B., Pritchard, H., Marks, T.R., & Pivetta, K.F.L. (2023) Germination response of palm seeds on a two-way thermogradient plate. Revista Ceres. 70(2): 49-57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-737x202370020006
Chen, H., Visscher, A.M., Ai, Q., Yang, L. & Pritchard, H.W. (2023) Intra-specific variation in desiccation tolerance of Citrus sinensis 'bingtangcheng' (L.) seeds under different environmental conditions in China. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 24(8): 7393. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24087393
Dayrell, R.L.C., Ott, T., Horrocks, T. & Poschlod, P. (2023) Automated extraction of seed morphological traits from images. Methods in Ecology and Evolution. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.14127
Liu, U., Gianella, M., Dávila Aranda, P., Diazgranados, M., Flores Ortíz, C.M., Lira-Saade, R., Bacci, S., Mattana, E., Milliken, W., Mitrovits, O., Pritchard, H.W., Rodríguez-Arévalo, I., Way, M., Williams, C. & Ulian, T. (2023) Conserving useful plants for a sustainable future: species coverage, spatial distribution, and conservation status within the Millennium Seed Bank collection. Biodiversity and Conservation. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-023-02631-w
Mattana, E., Chapman, T., Miles, S., Ulian, T. & Carta, A. (2023) Regeneration from seeds in a temperate native flora: A climate-smart and natural-capital-driven germination risk modelling approach. Plants, People, Planet. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10378

Issue 5: March 2023

In this issue we hear about field and lab adventures from China, South Africa and the UK. In 'Across the MSBP' Arthur, Lola and Rowan, current MSB interns, tell us about the projects they're working on, and we hear updates on the recent Exceptional Species training course and progress on actions from the 2022 MSBP partnership questionnaire. This quarter's species profiles come from South Africa - Leucadendron and Apodytes abbottii. Michael Way shares his experiences of working at the MSB in 'An interview with' and in the news and events section we share updates on the Seed Information Database and a new seed exhibition at Jardín Botánico Canario "Viera y Clavijo".

Two pink tubular flowers of Hydrocera triflora, the centres are dark pink whilst the tips of the petals are light pink — *Hydrocera triflora*, China. (Photo: GBOWS).

The tip of a flower spike. There is a terminal whorl of black oval shaped buds. Some buds have small red flower tips emerging. Some are in flower, with the long red corolla tube and bottom flower lobe present. The stamen and style protrude from the flower. — *Salvia coccinea. (Photo: Mogau Monashane).*

6 seeds lined up in a row with a 1mm scale bar. The first is approximately 5mm long but c. 2mm wide with a round point at the bottom getting larger towards the rounded top. The second is also approximately 5mm long and c. 2mm wide and tear drop shaped. The third is around 3.5mm long and 1mm wide a light grey colour and tear drop shaped. The fourth is less than 1mm long and wide with a rounded shape. The fifth seed is recurved 5mm long and c. 2mm wide with deep striations running vertically. The sixth seed is black in colour and approximately 2mm long. — American prairie seeds, UK. (Photo: Arthur Butler).

Dense green leaf foliage with clusters of round fruits some red and some black — *Apodytes abbottii*, South Africa. (Photo: Fergy Nkadimeng).

Stories from the field and lab this issue explore the germination of a rediscovered aquatic plant from China, the impact of an invasive species from South Africa and the relationship between seed collecting and roads.

Hydrocera triflora (L.) Wight & Arnott is a perennial, hydrophytic plant with pink or yellowish flowers belonging to the Balsaminaceae (touch-me-not family). Its conservation status was evaluated as Regionally Extinct (RE), according to the Red List of Biodiversity in China (2013), until researchers from Kunming Institute of Botany rediscovered wild populations in Hainan Province in 2014.

Most members of the touch-me-not family produce touch-sensitive fruit, with explosively dehiscent capsules. The fruit of monotypic H. triflora is a drupe with pyrenes, but there is little known about the seed biology of this species. Understanding the seed germination and storage behaviour is important to develop a conservation strategy. Our recent studies discovered that fresh seeds of H. triflora had non-deep physiological dormancy, and germination percentages up to 96.8 ± 1.37% at alternated temperature of 35/25°C after warm stratification for 42 days at 20°C on 1% water agar were achieved. Dry seeds keep well with a germination rate at 96.8 ± 1.3% when seed moisture content (MC) was reduced to 4.36 ± 0.02% (fresh weight basis). Germination percentage remained at 94.8 ± 1.6% after 1 year stored at -20°C.

Seeds of H. triflora survive after drying and can be stored under conventional seed storage conditions for long-term preservation. The germination protocol and enhanced seed knowledge of H. triflora may boost conservation and restoration of this species.

Two green stalked fruits. The fruits are not completely round but have slight edges. — Fruits of *Hydrocera triflora*. (Photo: GBOWS).

References

Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China (2013) Red List of Biodiversity in China-Higher Plants.

A new invasive species (Salvia coccinea) has been detected in the cemetery at the Lowveld National Botanical Garden (LNBG), South Africa. The cemetery belongs to the City of Mbombela and is situated on the outskirts of the Garden near the dumping site. The area infested by Salvia coccinea in the LNBG is estimated to be 0.08 hectares (Fig. 1).

Salvia coccinea is a beautiful plant, but a potentially nasty emerging invasive plant. In the LNBG it was first detected next to the gate to the dumping site in 2017, with Garden staff unaware that it would become a serious invader. Salvia coccinea is not regulated under South African law.

A bird's eye view of a grassy, woodland, habitat. An area is highlighted to the righ side of the image, indicating where the S. coccinea population is located — Figure 1. Map of the area infested by *Salvia coccinea* at the LNBG cemetery. (Photo: Google Earth/Mogau Monashane).

Description

Salvia coccinea (also known as Scarlet Sage) is a herbaceous plant,belonging to the Lamiaceae family. It was first introduced to the Garden as an ornamental, and a traditional medicinal plant (Li et al., 2013). It usually grows up to 1.5 m tall. The stems are covered with short hairs, and long spreading hairs during the juvenile stage. It has dark green leaves, and when flowering it produces bright red flowers, with small upper lobes (Fig. 2).

Salvia coccinea is spread through seeds. These seeds can be dispersed naturally by wind or water, while people often spread it in dumped garden waste. Salvia coccinea grows well in shady areas.

A single stemmed plant with sets of opposite cordate leaves with slightly serrate leaves. The plant has a terminal spike infloresence with wholrs of red flowers and buds. — Figure 2a: *Salvia coccinea* (Scarlet sage) at the LNBG cemetery, whole plant. (Photo: Mogau Monashane).

A pair of opposite leaves each with a serrate margin tapering to a fine point. The base of each leaf is not visible but from each leaf axil small pairs of opposite leaves are also present. — Figure 2b: *Salvia coccinea* (Scarlet sage) at the LNBG cemetery, leaves and flowers. (Photo: Mogau Monashane).

The spike of a Salvia plant, whorls of red zygomorphic flowers. Each red flower has a long tubular fused corolla with stamens and the style protruding from the flower. — Figure 2c: *Salvia coccinea* (Scarlet sage) at the LNBG cemetery, flowers. (Photo: Mogau Monashane).

Distribution and habitat

Salvia coccinea originates in the Southern United States, Mexico, Central and South America. According to the Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas (SAPIA), Salvia coccinea has invaded six South African provinces.

The plant survives well in disturbed sites such as cemeteries, open wasteland, roadsides, open urban areas, gardens, plantations, open woodland, and riparian vegetation. It grows well in warmer temperate regions. Not only the LNBG bears the brunt of Scarlet Sage, but also some other parts of Mpumalanga and Limpopo are affected.

Salvia coccinea seems to thrive during periods of high rainfall and flooding. This theory proved to be correct in 2020, after a massive infestation was discovered shortly after heavy rainfall and flooding was experienced during the summer rainfall season. Subsequently this plant has become a common sight in Mpumalanga and Limpopo.

Environmental impact and other potential impacts

Salvia coccinea is regarded as an environmental weed in Queensland (Australia), where it forms dense stands, dislocating native plant and animal species (CABI, 2021; Hindmarsh, 1937; Jäger and van Staden, 2000).

Another potential impact of Salvia coccinea include being poisonous to domestic animals, such as cattle. The young plants are said to be more toxic to cattle. After consumption, weakened and awkward movements have been observed.

Management and research

After Salvia coccinea was classified as a suspected potential invader, a detailed survey was conducted across the LNBG to check for more populations and discover the extent of the infestation.

The first survey was done in November 2021 at the previously mentioned graveyard site. The following organisations participated in the survey: South African National Biodiversity Institute - Directorate on Biodiversity Evidence (SANBI–DBE); Groen Sebenza Interns; and Department of Fisheries Forestry Environment (DFFE). The distribution was significantly wider than initially thought having spread from the cemetery (Fig. 3).

The next survey was conducted by the SANBI Curator and SANBI-DBE staff. It was conducted in the southern part of the Garden, on the Garden Estate site bordering the University of Mpumalanga. During this survey (conducted in December 2021), only one plant was spotted along the fence on the Estate site of the Lowveld National Botanical Garden.

SANBI-DBE is planning to remove populations of Salvia coccinea detected within the LNBG before it spreads to other parts of the Garden. The Garden plans to use the Eco–monitors team.

Currently, there is no herbicide registered to control the spread of Salvia coccinea in the Garden. In the meantime, the SANBI–DBE team will be using an uprooting method to control the outbreak. In addition, the team will be on the lookout for populations within the Garden and will gather data for future analysis. Data collected will be stored in accordance with SANBI-DBE records and data storage methods.

For several years, SANBI has been actively working towards controlling and preventing the spread of alien invaders in the Garden. During the last financial year, through support of the PEPSI budget, over 30 local people were employed by SANBI to clear alien invasive plants in the Garden.

A densely covered ground space within a woodland area displaying many red flowers dispersed amongst the flora. — Figure 3: *Salvia coccinea* (Scarlet sage) at Lowveld National Botanical Garden cemetery. Coordinates (-25.446183, 30.972835). (Photo: Mogau Monashane).

Future work

Further surveys will be conducted to determine the distribution of Salvia coccinea outside the LNBG, across Mpumalanga, and other provinces in South Africa. In addition, a risk analysis will be conducted to regulate the species.

References

CABI. (2019) Salvia coccinea (scarlet sage). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.116872
Hindmarsh, W.L. (1937) Salvia coccinea. A garden escapre, poisonous to stock. N.S.Wales Res. Rept. 7: 118.
Jäger, A.K. & van Staden, J. (2000) Salvia in southern Africa. In S.E. Kintzios (Ed.) Sage: The genus Salvia. Harwood academic publishers, Amsterdam.
Li, M., Li, .Q., Zhang, C., Zhang, N., Cui, Z., Huang, L. & Xiao, P. (2013) An ethnopharmacological investigation of medicinal Salvia plants (Lamiaceae) in China. Acta Pharm. Sin. B. 3: 273-280.
Nagel, K.B., Gupta, A. & Asrani, R.K. (2014) Salvia coccinea poisoning among migratory Gaddi goats: Evidence from mid-hills of Himachai Pradesh (India). Indian J. Anim. Sci. 84: 37-38.

A digital sketch of two people kneeling down by some plants in a wide open plain infront of some mountains. There is a 4x4 near them. One person is writing on a clip board, the other is holding a herbarium press. — Biologists exploring plant diversity by a road. (Photo: DALL-E 2).

Ex situ seed conservation relies on access to seed sources, but how much of it is driven by proximity to roads and paths? To investigate this question, I’ve used a subsample of georeferenced seed collections available from the MSBP’s Data Warehouse (n > 42,000) and extracted from OpenStreetMap the shortest distance to a road and the type of road.

At a global scale, results show that 90% of all seed collections are georeferenced within 800 m of a road (approximately a ten-minute walk). However, almost half of them (49%) returned with distance values less than 10 m away from a road (Fig. 1), highlighting the role of roads in which plants seeds are collected from. The further away a collection point is from a road, the more likely it is the distance result is biased by a lack of information on roads in that area. OpenStreetMap is an ongoing mapping project, with remote areas still lacking precise information. Some notable exceptions are found in Australia, where some collection points are kilometres away from any visible road (Fig. 2). Another factor affecting the results are collections geotagged in batches (several collections sharing the same coordinates, see Fig. 1). Additionally, collections might have been made back when roads nearby were not around, but results have been obtained using the latest information on road maps.

A graph with distance on the x axis ranging from 0 to 1000m and density on the y axis. Between 0 and 250m from a road shows the peak of collection density around 50m. From 250m to 1000m from a road the density declines and becomes increasingly patchy, with the exceptions of 4 highlighted distances between 750 and 1,000m where there are clusters of many collections made from the same location. — Figure 1: Density of georeferenced MSBP data warehouse collections within 1km of a road. (Photo: Pablo Gómez Barreiro).

An aerial shot of a red landscape, with a red pin highlighting a point in the centre where a seed collection was made. There is a lake to the east but no road visible in any direction. — Figure 2a: Two seed collections from Australia top the rank of being the furthest away from a mapped road, first 81 km away. (Photo: Google Maps).

An aerial shot of a rugged mountain landscape with several river valleys. In the centre of the image is a red pin marking the location of a seed collection. At the very bottom of the image is a yellow line indicating the nearest road, several river valleys away from the pin. — Figure 2b: Two seed collections from Australia top the rank of being the furthest away from a mapped road, the second being 51 km away. (Photo: Google Maps).

At a regional level, patterns in distance from the nearest road to collection location is like those at a global scale (Fig. 3), but road types differ between regions (Table 1). For example, Europe shows less collections obtained near primary roads although has a higher proportion of collections obtained from tracks and paths. Europe also has the lowest number of unclassified roads, but this is probably due to OpenStreetMap road maps information being more accurate than in other regions.

A stacked density plot with distance from a road between 0 and 100m on the x axis and the different continents on the y axis. All continents included (Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Oceania & South America), have the peak of collection density between 0 and 25m from the road. For Europe the peak is slightly closer towards 10m away from a road than the other continents which show the peak closer to 5m. — Figure 3. Density of georeferenced MSBP data warehouse collections by region within 100m of a road. (Photo: Pablo Gómez Barreiro).

**Table 1: Percentage of road types for nearest road to a collection by region. * = not necessarily available to motorised vehicles. See references and resources section for OpenStreetMap Wiki (2023).**
Regions	Primary Roads (%)	Secondary Roads (%)	Tertiary Roads (%)	Tracks (%)	Trunk Roads (%)	Residential Roads (%)	Service Roads (%)	Footway* (%)	Path* (%)	Unclassified* (%)	Other* (%)
Africa	9	11	15	18	5	6	3	2	8	23	0
Asia	13	12	13	11	12	12	5	1	4	14	3
Europe	4	6	13	27	1	11	3	1	23	8	2
North America	12	10	22	5	4	13	3	2	3	23	3
Oceania	7	9	9	24	5	3	5	2	11	23	1
South America	9	9	17	16	9	7	5	2	8	15	3

Based on these results, it seems like ex situ collectors favour conservation of seeds from accessible plants near roads, meaning that the further away plant resources are from a road, the less likely these genetic resources will be represented in a collection. While more representation from less accessible plants would improve the genetic variability of current collections it could also be argued that “inaccessible” plants are less at risk from the direct and indirect anthropogenic impacts caused by roads.

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Aisyah Faruk, Matthew Jeffery and several principal collectors for their help and ideas.

References and Resources

MSBP Data Warehouse (2023) https://brahmsonline.kew.org/msbp/SeedData/DW
OpenStreetMap (2023) https://www.openstreetmap.org
OpenStreetMap Wiki (2023) https://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Key:highway

In 'Across the MSBP' this issue, three students currently undertaking a year-long internship at the MSB between their second and third years at university tell us about the projects they're working on, Hanna Oldfield, training coordinator at the MSB, gives an overview of the recent exceptional species training course, and we also provide an update on the progress of our actions arising from the 2022 MSBP partner questionnaire.

This year at the MSB, we have three 12-month interns working on various projects. They are all between their second and third years of their university degrees and have taken some time to write a little about the projects they're working on.

Using seed traits to mitigate invasiveness risk of American prairie species at Wakehurst by Arthur Butler, Michael Way (RBG Kew) & Rafia Sultana Hogg (Capel Manor College)

A man knelt down on a moxed piece of grass next to aa taller sward of plants some with yellow flowers. He is holding a paper envelope. — Arthur collecting at the site of a seed trap found 1m within the American prairie. (Photo: Michael Way).

An occupational hazard of the management of botanic gardens comes when introducing multiple species to an unfamiliar ecosystem. While some species may struggle to gain a foothold, others have the potential to thrive, sometimes even outcompeting local flora. With the number of invasive species up 70% since 1970 (IPBES 2019), finding ways to mitigate risks when creating a novel plant community is of paramount importance. In botanic gardens, where plants often have significant conservation value, even more so. We used seed traits to assess and help managers minimise these risks.

In March 2022, a project to mitigate the effects of introducing wild origin species from the USA to a UK botanic garden began. The investigation centred around the six-acre American prairie, created beside the formal gardens at Wakehurst. The prairie hosts 110 species, planted in 2020 using wild sourced seed, creating a novel habitat within the botanic garden. Due to their success in similar climates across Europe the following six perennials were chosen for study: Coreopsis lanceolata (CL), Eryngium yuccifolium, Liatris aspera, Solidago rigida (SR), Veronicastrum virginicum and Zizia aurea. During the project it was discovered that 10% of seed present in the prairie’s soil seed bank belonged to a seventh species: Rudbeckia hirta, which has since been added to the focal species list.

The ‘American Prairie Risk Ranking’ (APRR) was created to appraise invasiveness potential. Through spring and summer 2022 physical characteristics were recorded (e.g., plant height and seed production are key contributors to potential invasiveness). Seed trait data was collected throughout autumn, with a focus on seed dispersal and viability. These data alerted us to the invasiveness potential of SR and CL, which both displayed high numbers of viable seeds. CL was abundant in the American Prairie whilst SR could disperse seeds over long distances.

Each passing year presents an opportunity for further data collection and analysis, which will help refine and strengthen the APRR framework.

7 seeds lined up in a row mostly around 5mm long. The first is approximately 5mm long and 3mm wide and oblong in shape with a dark brown centre, the second is also approximately 5mm long but c. 2mm wide with a round point at the bottom getting larger towards the rounded top. The third is also approximately 5mm long and c. 2mm wide and tear drop shaped. The fourth is around 3.5mm long and 1mm wide a light grey colour and tear drop shaped. The fifth is less than 1mm long and wide with a rounded shape. The sixth seed is recurved 5mm long and c. 2mm wide with deep striations running vertically. The seventh seed is black in colour and approximately 2mm long. — Figure 1: Line-up of one seed, on same scale, from all seven species (*Coreopsis lanceolata, Eryngium yuccifolium, Liatris aspera, Solidago rigida, Veronicastrum virginicum, Zizia aurea and Rudbeckia hirta*). Physical differences between the species made it easier when collecting and separating seed from a site with 100+ potential species. (Photo: Arthur Butler).

Climate smart seed selection by Lola Andrews (she/her)

Lola wearing a lab coat smiling next to a dust hood. She is holding a pai of tweezers and an agar plate of seeds up. — Lola in the lab peering over the seeds. (Photo: Rowan Black, RBG Kew).

Biodiversity is fundamental to a living planet, however our current way of life does not support biodiversity, we are destroying it at an alarming rate. I am sure that is not new to any of you and if you are anything like me you all have pondered various (wild and wacky) ways of tackling this issue.

The project I am working on, the “Native seeds for restoration: diversity and resilience in the UK” project, aims to help solve the biodiversity crisis through restoration. Specifically identifying species of UK native grassland at greatest risk from climate change at the germination stage.

One of my roles on this project is to carry out seed germination experiments. UK native grassland species have been selected based on their vulnerability and distribution within the UK. To model their germination response to temperature, the seeds are incubated at different temperatures, ranging from 0-40°C. Two of the species studied are Common Knapweed, Centaurea nigra L., and Yellow rattle, Rhinanthus minor L. (Fig. 1). By monitoring their germination kinetics across this temperature gradient, we can assess which species or populations are more sensitive or resilient to climate change. This involves spending a lot of time in the lab, peering over thousands of seeds on agar and carefully checking each one for a protruding radicle. Luckily, this is something I really enjoy. Sometimes it feels like a game of hide and seek, as in some species the radicle gets tucked under the seed or into the agar, making it inconspicuous- it is rewarding to find those cheeky germinated seeds.

By testing a number of different species, and populations within species considered to be at risk, we can begin to build a picture of what our future environment/landscape might look like. With this information climate smart seeds can be selected, either from resilient species or resilient populations, to be used in restoration projects nationwide. This approach will support more targeted and resilient restoration activities.

Two sets of seeds next to each other, the first is labelled Yellow Rattle, Rhinanthus minor L. the seeds are kidney shaped with a darker centre and are approximately 3 to 4 mm long. The second set of seeds are labelled Common Knapweed, Centaurea nigra L. and are oval shaped with fine hairs from one end, they are approximately 3mm in length. — Figure 1: Images of two species I have been working on. (Photo: Pablo Gómez-Barreiro, Jamal Rowe-Habbari and Lola Andrews, RBG Kew).

Make no exception for the exceptional by Rowan Black

Rowan wearing a white lab coat smiling at the camera. He is sat infront of a microscope in a dusthood, which has a germination plate under it. — Rowan in the lab scoring orchid seed viability. (Photo: Rowan Black, RBG Kew).

Exceptional describes a plant species that cannot be seed banked under standard conditions due to its inability to complete one, or more, of the four steps in the orthodox seed banking process (collection, processing, storage & recovery). The term was formally defined in 2022 by Valerie Pence and colleagues in two companion papers (Pence et al. 2022a & b). Alongside the papers, 23,530 plant species were used to form a list which assigned 775 species as exceptional. However, 17,603 species had insufficient data to be classified (Pence et al 2022b). Comparing the exceptional species list from Pence et al. (2022b) with Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) and Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) base lists, show only 19% of exceptional species are stored across the MSBP and only 14% in the MSB itself (see Figure 1 & 2).

Alternative storage methods, such as tissue culture and cryopreservation, have been used to store specific genotypes/maternal lines for agricultural species. However, they are underutilised for wild flora conservation. Cryopreservation has successfully stored seeds of many exceptional species that can tolerate partial desiccation. However, many species’ seeds cannot be cryopreserved whole, so require use of alternate germplasm for storage. Currently, there is no one-size-fits-all solution, and optimum conservation requires species-specific protocols. After seed, the next best option is zygotic embryos; however, they require in vitro culture for recovery, an operation that can be time consuming, expensive, and dependent on a workforce trained in the techniques. When neither of the previous options work, clonal material can be used (dormant buds, callus tissue, shoot tips, somatic embryos etc). Clonal material, although a suitable option to conserve many exceptional species, significantly limits the potential for us to store and maintain genetically diverse ex situ collections. Complementary storage of desiccation-tolerant pollen alongside clonal material may be an option for restoring genetic diversity.

Developing new protocols for exceptional species is costly and time-consuming, hindering large-scale implementation. While waiting for progress of protocol development, initiating living collections can reduce the pressure on exceptional species in the wild, provide propagules for research, and maintain some genetic diversity ex situ in the short term. Living collections can also assist in situ conservation, which, if effective, may allow for some species to be declassified as exceptional. Any solution to conserve exceptional species will require collaboration and knowledge sharing. Even if developed methods have lower recovery success or store less genetic diversity, they are still better than storing nothing ex situ.

A doughnut graph showing that 19% of exceptional species are held within the MSBP collections, whilst 81% of species are not. — Figure 1: The proportion of exceptional species absent and present in the MSBP collections.

A doughnut graph showing that 14% of exceptional species are held in the MSB, whilst 86% are not. — Figure 2: The proportion of exceptional species absent and present in MSB collections.

The eight course participants are gathered around seed processing assistant Ania Padjo who gestures to a computer screen. The contents of the screen are not visible. — Course participants looking at results of Tetrazolium stainings for viability monitoring. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield).

For the past couple of decades, the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) has concentrated mainly on banking orthodox species and supporting global conservation efforts by sharing best practices through the MSB seed conservation standards and training for Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) partners. With the success of banking orthodox species, the attention is turning to the subset of species identified as “exceptional”, i.e., unsuitable for long-term storage at -20°C, to reach future conservation targets. Different elements of this are to improve the survival of short-lived species, develop new methods for recalcitrant species by research, amended operation procedures and creating new training content.

In January, participants from Armenia, Bhutan, China, Greece, Indonesia and Israel visited the MSB for a one-week technical attachment focusing on the exceptional species. Some of the partners are already working on these approaches, and others have expressed an interest in learning more.

From collecting orchids at the right stage of seed pod maturity, as discussed in a talk from Jennifer Peach (MSB UK team), to the best techniques for cleaning seeds from fluffy Salix or spores from ferns, as demonstrated by the Seed collection team members responsible for microseeds, we covered methods already routinely used at the MSB. A guest talk from Dustin Wolkis of the National Tropical Botanical Garden from Hawaiʻi focused on different types of exceptional species and the strategies for their conservation.

All of the participants also shared their backgrounds and specific interests, for example, the challenging recalcitrant tree seeds of Indonesia (Dian Latifah) or the difficulties in growing the orchids of Bhutan (Pem Zam and Kezang Tobgay). One day of practicals with Dani Ballesteros was dedicated to an introduction to the cryopreservation of shoot meristem and embryonic tissues with methods like vitrification, droplet freezing and alginate encapsulation (for further information see Volk (2020) and Funnekotter et al. (2022)). These methods, as well as techniques on symbiotic orchid seed germination by Viswambharan Sarasan, are still part of research projects but will hopefully be further developed in the future.

It was great to share the new approaches with the course participants and we are planning to offer a more in-depth course on cryopreservation in October. Please contact MSBTraining@kew.org if you are interested in attending or to express interest in our annual Seed Conservation Techniques course which will be offered online this September.

Lecturer Dr Dani Ballesteros gestures to a large monitor screen displaying an excised embryo of an Aesculus hippocastanum seed — Lecturer Dani Ballesteros demonstrating the correct excision of the embryo from an *Aesculus hippocastanum* seed.

In 2022 we undertook our biannual MSBP partner questionnaire to get your feedback on the MSBP and to help us shape the direction of the MSBP moving forward. The questionnaire was open from February to April and covered nine different areas related to seed conservation and the MSBP, including seed use, restoration, training, the MSBP Seed Conservation Standards, the MSBP Data Warehouse and the Samara newsletter.

In this article we provide an update on progress towards five key action points for ourselves that arose from analysis of the questionnaire results.

Scoping for an online workshop in 2023 covering some of the overlapping issues associated with seed distribution.

It was felt that some of the main barriers to seed distribution and use were: ensuring the correct paperwork was in place and legislation was followed, seed collection size, and the mechanisms and resources needed to undertake seed distribution. Whilst several of the issues which limit seed distribution are specific to individual countries, there are many areas which overlap between countries, hence this action point to scope the feasibility of running an online workshop in 2023, to help address some of these issues together. We have an internal discussion in the diary for early April on how best to take this forward, with further information to follow soon after.

Review feedback from the partner questionnaire, 2022 training courses and our online training resources to identify gaps and areas for improvement.

At the time of the questionnaire, in-person training had not resumed following the switch to online training during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results from the questionnaire indicated a general preference for in-person training with little support for an online-only approach. This feedback has already been taken into consideration with the resumption of in-person training alongside our review process for monitoring training feedback.. In addition, there were requests for training in specific areas, such as propagation and cryopreservation.

During 2022 our flagship Seed Conservation Techniques (SCT) course ran as a hybrid event with a week of online lectures and then two weeks of in-person sessions at the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB). We also delivered multiple in-country SCT courses, technical attachments at the MSB restarted, and we held a specialist exceptional species training course at the MSB (see article 'Special training for exceptional species'). Feedback from these courses indicated that they offered excellent training in areas highly relevant for participants’ job roles, that they were well organised, and were seen as good value for money (where course fees were applied).

Our current online training resources comprise 16 technical information sheets covering a range of ex situ seed conservation activities, from identifying desiccation sensitive species and assessing seed populations for collection, through to drying methods, germination testing techniques as well as seed bank design. A small number of technical videos and seed collecting manuals are also available.

Gaps were identified in our training provision, including areas such as seed use e.g., propagation and restoration training materials; specific details missing from training such as making agar plates, using a blue drum kit (for seed drying) and shipping guidance; and a need for more short-lived species guidance and resources. Another opportunity is to expand the range of technical videos available online.

Through the 2022/2023 onsite courses, filming took place and Hanna Oldfield (MSB Training Coordinator) has started developing additional resources, some of which will be available via the MSBP Data Warehouse website in the future. For 2023, the SCT course will be offered in an online format with individual training visits arranged for priority candidates. The aim is to alternative hybrid courses with online courses to balance the interest of candidates in practical training with the wider access and larger participation from online courses. Discussions are also underway for other training courses to be run in 2023 including a more in-depth course on cryopreservation in the autumn. Not all our training opportunities are advertised publicly, so if you have a specific seed conservation training need we would recommend speaking to your MSB Coordinator in the first instance or email MSBTraining@kew.org

Improve our external communications around upcoming opportunities and new training materials.

The E-newsletter format of Samara allows us to be more dynamic with the information we share, and the ‘News and Events’ section is specifically designed to enable us to share updates when they become available. When the new training resources highlighted above are on the website they will be shared via this channel, as will forthcoming training opportunities. We also use the Kew website, social media channels and direct mailings to known training interested partners to advertise training courses.

Plan for the establishment of a panel to review potential updates to the MSBP Seed Conservation Standards.

There was a short break in running standards reviews due to staff changes and then the COVID-19 pandemic. The initial step to implement this action was to conduct a review of the Seed Conservation Standards once at least five reviews had been completed in 2022/2023. The aim of this was to give us a baseline of the standards process, and this review is currently underway. Once completed, we will use the information to plan the terms of reference for the panel and proceed from there. In addition to this we have also undertaken a Seed Conservation Standards review of the MSB.

Improve the visual appeal of the Samara e-mail and website.

The partner questionnaire highlighted the need to improve the visual appeal of the E-newsletter, both the website and the email. Hopefully you will have noticed some changes to the email this time round! There are now hyperlinks directly to each section and a generally more colourful appearance. We hope to improve this further in future, but must work within the limitations of our current software. For the Samara E-newsletter webpage we are restricted in terms of what we can do to improve the visual appeal, but have been including more photos and incorporating different styles of articles which was one of the great suggestions that came through the partner questionnaire.

Apodytes abbottii by Naomi Mdayi (SANBI)

Apodytes abbottii is a shrub or small tree, endemic to rocky sandstone outcrops in southern KwaZulu-Natal and north-eastern Transkei (Pondoland Centre). It was described as a new species from Southern Africa by Potgieter & Van Wyk in 1994 and is a range restricted species that occurs in a highly threatened habitat: Pondoland scarp forest, in forest margins, fire protected crevices and rock cliff faces above forested gorges. There are more than ten locations where the number of mature individuals is declining, due to too frequent and intense fires, and harvesting for firewood and building materials. As a result, A. abbottii is listed as Near Threatened (NT) on the Red List of Southern African Plants. The seeds of this species were collected by Fergy Nkadimeng in February 2022, near the Umtamvuna Nature Reserve. These seeds will be banked at the MSB for long-term storage.

**Seed collection of threatened Leucadendron species "The Cone Bushes" by Naomi Mdayi (SANBI)**

Leucadendron cinereum seeds, were collected at Riverlands Nature Reserve by Naomi Mdayi. She was joined by the two Kirstenbosch Gardens interns (Mane Somtshu & Thamsanqa Msweli), and they were accompanied in the field by one Cape Nature staff member from the reserve, for the two days they spent exploring the reserve. L. cinereum is a Proteaceae shrub, listed as Vulnerable on the Red List of South African plants, due to the declining and often endangered habitats where it occurs. Like other cone bushes, L. cinereum is dioecious, with insect-pollinated male and female flowers occurring on separate plants. Seeds are stored in small silver, fire-resistant cones. The plants are usually killed by fire, after which the wind-dispersed seeds are released from the cones. Another Vulnerable Proteaceae species, L. corymbosum was collected by Naomi Mdayi, Mashudu Nndanduleni (Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden horticulturist) and Kirstenbosch interns, together with staff from Waterval Nature Reserve under Cape Nature. The seeds were collected at Voëlvlei Nature Reserve, another reserve managed by Cape Nature. This species occurs in the Renosterveld and sadly habitat loss continues to affect this and others, because of vineyard expansion, wetland drainage, urban expansion, alien plant invasion, road construction, road verge clearing and overgrazing. Leucadendron corymbosum seeds are not new to the MSB but were not collected in this region before and because of these ongoing threats, extra backup is essential.

A luggage style label reading National Botanic Gardens Kirstenbosch, Newlands, C.P., South Africa Leucadendron corymbosa 11296. Below the label is a piloe of dark triangular shaped seeds — *Leucadendron corymbosum* seeds. (Photo: Naomi Mdayi).

Interviewed by Clare Callow (RBG Kew)

This month Michael Way offered the Samara team his insight into seed conservation and how to inspire the next generation of conservationists.

Michael joined Kew in 1993, originally as an ecologist with experience in Latin America, attracted by the idea of a seed collection position. He continues his focus on Latin America in his current role, and his remit now is on developing and running projects there, in his favourite part of the world.

Can you tell us a bit about your role?

I am based at Wakehurst and started working here in the era before the expansion of Kew Science when the biology of basic orthodox seed banking was increasingly well understood for wild species, and the plan to have an impact on the world stage had been piloted. We had one position for the Americas and one position for Africa, which had proven that it was possible to set up programmes of work from the UK through partners overseas. That came to be the business plan which was expanded into the truly global scale of the MSBP.

Michael standing against the back of a truck with the back down organising a stack of herbarium specimens in newspaper. There is a pair of secateurs on top of a pile of newspaper. — Michael processing herbarium specimens on a field trip in Peru. (Photo: D. Montesinos).

What does a typical day at work look like for you?

Most of my colleagues are based in the Americas, often six hours or more behind UK time, so my days are very much driven by this time difference. I normally start the day by looking at the overnight correspondence – queries from partners who are running our projects in Mexico, Colombia, or the USA, and then I will have an eye on our students and trainees – making sure their needs are met and following how their projects are developing. I’ll look at what needs organising - for our funded projects in terms of getting collections accessioned or inputting into projects in the development phase, and I'm increasingly trying to keep time for research and research support so that we are not just delivering work under existing protocols, we're actually trying to find better ways of doing our job in lots of different ways – scientifically, professionally, technically and logistically, wherever we can.

What influenced you to work in seed conservation?

I had experience in UK conservation before I went to Latin America, so I'd seen the negotiations between landowners and statutory bodies over the use of land, and the effect of funding organisations in this realm, so I understood the obstacles to nature conservation delivered just through land management. In Latin America I'd seen the amazing diversity of plants, and had worked in a small seed nursery for six months in Ecuador, which involved collecting seed from, and propagating, very threatened plants. The small NGO I worked with had responsibility for education and management in a cloud forest reserve just outside Cuenca, protected as a watershed for the city’s water supply.

What is your favourite aspect of your role at the moment?

We have recently greatly expanded our training programme, which has encouraged me to find novel ways of delivering our seed conservation knowledge to new audiences and to improve the way that we convey findings from research – not just taking place at the MSB but in different seed labs around the world – that is changing the way we think about handling seeds in the field, and presenting new options for working with exceptional species. The new Biodiversity and Conservation MSc programme that Kew has developed with Queen Mary University of London has provided a great opportunity for us to get restoration conservation and seed biology onto the curriculum, and help the next generation of students.

Two men stood looking at a clipboard. They are standing in a river valley with rocky slopes and sparse ground vegetation. They are both wearing baseball hats with INIA and Kew written on. — Discussing identifications in the field in Chile. (Photo: INIA).

How do you see the work of the MSBP changing over the next decade?

I think day-to-day activities will become more digital as we pick up more tools to capture, share and analyse information faster and in real-time, but we are grounded in physical seed collections that need testing and propagating and using, and so there's a limit to how far digital tools are going to transform our day-to-day work. I think the nature of our relationships with partner organisations will continue to evolve - I'm thrilled that so many partners have had the opportunity to build their capacity through various programmes with Kew, and are now operating to a very high standard, are able to find funding and find new ways to do seed conservation in their different situations.

Working with students and interns gives us opportunities to shine lights on areas of work that we want to explore but perhaps wouldn’t be able to commit a whole new funded position to, which might lead to changes in the way we handle seed – for example, our current intern took the opportunity to collect Hedera helix (common Ivy) seeds from just outside the MSB in February. Those seeds are now being studied for desiccation sensitivity. This work will enable us to understand what that species requires, which wouldn’t have been possible without a programme of interns.

Michael stood holding a clipboard talking to a group of students outside the MSB. The students are stood in a arc around Michael listening to him — Michael teaching on the Kew diploma course. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield).

New exhibition at the Jardín Botánico "Viera y Clavijo" Seedbank

From the Jardín Botánico "Viera y Clavijo" Seedbank team:

This year we have inaugurated a new exposition in our Seedbank. This exposition is about the history of the seed (from the first plants with seeds 350 years ago to the present), the different dispersion systems (seed biology), the work in a seed bank (what we do), the biodiversity locked in a seedbank, seedbanks in the world, and threats to biodiversity.

More information about the Jardín Botánico Canario "Viera y Clavijo" can be found on their website.

Relaunch of the Seed Information Database (SID)

On the 23^rd February 2023, the Society for Ecology Restoration's (SER) International Network for Seed-based Restoration (INSR) held a webinar to launch the new Seed Information Database.

More information on the launch can be found on the SER website.

If you have any recent publications (not just journal articles), please send them through to samara@kew.org so we can share them in upcoming issues.

Recent publications from across the MSBP:

Goodale, U.M., Antonelli, A., Nelson, C.R. & Chau, M.M. (2023) Seed banks needed to restore ecosystems. Science. 379:147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adg2171
Nadarajan, J., Walters, C., Pritchard, H.W., Ballesteros, D. & Colville, L. (2023) Seed Longevity - The evolution of knowledge and a conceptual framework. Plants. 12: 471. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12030471
Sampayo-Maldonado, S., Ordoñ-Salanueva, C.A., Mattana, E., Way, M., Castillo-Lorenzo, E., Dávila-Aranda, P.D., Lira-Saade, R., Téllez-Valdés, O., Rodríguez-Arévalo, N.I.; Flores-Ortiz, C.M. & Ulian, T. (2023) Potential distribution of Cedrela odorata L. in Mexico according to its optimal thermal range for seed germination under different climate change scenarios. Plants. 12: 150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12010150
White, F.J., Ensslin, A., Godefroid, S., Faruk, A., Abeli, T., Rossi, G. & Mondoni, A. (2023) Using stored seeds for plant translocation: the seed bank perspective.Biological Conservation. 281: 109991. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109991

Issue 4: September 2022

In this issue we hear about field adventures in Svalbard and lab work on the endemic Lobelioideae of Hawaiʻi. As well as steps towards creating the third edition of the Red Book of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the progress of seed banking at Bali Botanic Garden and the creation of a Seed Production Garden on Kangaroo Island, Australia. This issue's interview is with Dr Dian Latifah, Coordinator of Seed Conservation Research Group within the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Indonesia. The seed question of the quarter looks at the difference between mouldy and infested seeds when doing cut-tests, X-rays and germination testing.

A yellow flower with 5 petals each with a fringed margin — *Nymphoides geminata*, Kangaroo Island, Australia. (Photo: SASCC).

A tall woody stem with leaf scars, ending in several whorls of simple lanceolate leaves with nine visible infloresence spikes emerging from the top. On each infloresence spike is a row many curved pink flowers all facing towards the sky. — *Trematolobelia kauaiensis*, Hawaiʻi. (Photo: Ken Wood).

A close up photo of the fruiting stalk of alpine sorrel. The seeds are round and flat with red outline — *Oxyria digyna*, Svalbard. (Photo: RBG Kew).

A low growing herbaceous plant on a rocky substrate. The leaves are small, simple and pointed and are opposite each other on the stem. There are flower buds from the top of each stalk with a purple tinge to them. The flowers are white with a bifucated tip. — *Cerastium latifolium*, Azerbaijan. (Photo: Elman Yusifov).

Stories from the field and lab this issue explore the Lobelioideae of Hawaiʻi and seed collecting in Svalbard.

The remote archipelago of Hawaiʻi in the Pacific Ocean is a hotspot of endemism with nearly 90% of the native flora being endemic to the islands, many being single-island or even narrower endemics (Sakai et al., 2002). Of the nearly 1,400 native plant taxa, nearly half are considered species of conservation importance and more than 230 plant taxa survive with fewer than 50 individuals remaining in the wild. There are several reasons for this endangerment, including habitat destruction, loss of pollinators, invasive species (including plants, rodents, and diseases), and climate change.

A tall woody stem with with leaf scars, ending in several whorls of simple lanceolate leaves all curving downwards. The bottom leaves are brown. From the top of the plant multiple horizontal infloresence spikes are protruding. Each infloresence spike has many pink flowers each with many recurved pink petals and protruding anthers. — *Trematolobelia kauaiensis* in flower in its natural habitat on Kauaʻi. Endemic to the island of Kauaʻi, seeds were used in the studies done at the MSB. (Photo: Ken Wood).

A diversity of complementary conservation measures are being taken to safeguard these plants, from seed banking and ex situ collections of plants in botanical gardens, to propagation and in situ out-planting in their natural habitat with varying success. Seed banks are fundamental resources for plant conservation, simultaneously providing a safety net through longer-term storage, as well as a means for linking ex situ conservation with in situ restoration and reintroduction. However, seed storage behavior varies greatly among species (Hong & Ellis, 1996) and understanding seed behavior is critical for successful seed banking and conservation. There is therefore an urgent need to understand evolutionary and ecological relationships with morphological and physiological seed traits that determine seed storage behavior.

While the majority of species are thought to produce orthodox seeds (i.e., desiccation and freeze tolerant), an estimated 8% of plant species are recalcitrant, or sensitive to desiccation (Wyse & Dickie, 2017). With some key families, life forms, biomes and levels of extinction risk having higher levels of non-orthodox behavior. In these instances, the proportion of species with recalcitrant seeds could be 40-70%. For those species that produce more desiccation tolerant seeds, there is a gradient of storage behavior, which includes species with intermediate storage behavior which show desiccation tolerance but poor storage at -20°C, where apparently orthodox seeds show a more rapid than expected decrease in viability over the course of a decade (Walters, 2015). Fully orthodox seeds can be expected to survive dry, cold storage for many decades.

Efforts to predict storage behavior based on measurable morphological or physiological seed traits (e.g., seed mass, lipid phase state changes, moisture content, and dormancy class) have thus far had limited success. This is particularly true for physiological traits that have historically been challenging to measure (like lipid phase state changes), but for which new technology has made measurements more accessible. Efforts to understand how seed storage behavior relates to ecological and phylogenetic relationships have been limited. Research has shown that storage behavior of seeds can be predicted by habitat and habit (Tweddle et al., 2003; Wyse & Dickie, 2017) and that there is a phylogenetic signal (Dickie & Pritchard, 2002) indicating storage behavior may be relatively conserved at low taxonomic levels. Moreover, there are suggested physical co-correlants of desiccation (in)tolerance, including seed mass and seed coat: whole seed mass ratio (Daws et al., 2006).

The endemic Hawaiian Lobelioideae (Campanulaceae; 6 genera, 126 spp.) exemplify adaptive radiation in plants and comprise the largest family in the flora of the most isolated archipelago on Earth (Wagner et al., 2005). Endemic Campanulaceae is distributed on seven of the eight main Hawaiian Islands ranging in elevation from <100 to >4000 m a.s.l. and demonstrates remarkable diversity of habit (e.g., shrubs, trees, rosettes, succulents, vines, epiphytes) and habitat (e.g., high elevation bogs, cliff faces, forests; Wagner et al., 1999). While the majority of species in the family produce orthodox seeds (i.e., desiccation and freeze tolerant), this is not the case with Hawaiian-endemic Campanulaceae which appear to have anomalous responses to conventional seed storage methods (i.e., equilibrium to 15-25% relative humidity (RH), and -18°C storage; Chau et al., 2019). Consequently, Hawaiian lobeliads provide an ideal model group for studying prediction of seed behavior though comparison with Campanulaceae globally.

A straight green stem with many leaf scars. At the top of the stem a whorl of deep purple round fruits are present. From the top of the long stemed leaves are shooting. The leaves a simple with a tooth margin and a pointed tip. — *Delissea rhytidosperma* in fruit in the NTBG Conservation Nursery. Endemic to Kauaʻi, now extinct in the wild. (Photo: Seana Walsh).

Four small seeds each less than 1mm long. Each seed is a slightly different shape between round and oblong. The surface of the seeds are light brown appearing lightly wrinkled — *Delissea rhytidosperma* seeds collected in 2022 in NTBG's Limahuli Garden and Preserve. (Photo: Dustin Wolkis).

As Seed Bank and Laboratory Manager at the National Tropical Botanical Garden (NTBG) headquartered on Kauaʻi, Hawaiʻi and a PhD Student at the University of Copenhagen Natural History Museum of Denmark, I seek to understand factors that affect seed longevity in the native Hawaiian flora. I recently traveled from Hawaiʻi to the UK for a research stay at RBG Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) to study lipid thermal properties in the Hawaiian lobelioids and related groups. I targeted one representative species from each of the six Hawaiian clades from a recent global Lobelioideae phylogeny (Kagame et al., 2021), and one species from a closely related clade from the Marquesas from the NTBG Seed Bank and Lab collection, as well as one species each from three other closely related clades from the MSB collection. Unfortunately, I was not able to bring species from one of the Hawaiian clades outside of the United States as all taxa in it are federally listed as endangered in the US and permits could not be obtained. Supervised by Drs. Hugh Pritchard, Louise Colville, and Daniel Ballesteros, I used differential scanning calorimetry to capture the lipid thermal fingerprints for three replicates of each species, as well as performed annealing experiments at two temperatures. Somewhat serendipitously, on the last day of my visit, I was able to collect seeds of the critically endangered (possibly extinct in the wild) Delissea rhytidosperma (Walsh, 2015) on site, from the MSB research greenhouse, thereby capturing the final clade in the study that otherwise would not have been possible. By investigating the interactions between temperature and lipid melt and crystallization behavior over warming, we hope to gain insight into why these species exhibit poor storage behavior during conventional seed bank storage.

Dustin is wearing a white lab coat, stood behind a bench with a microscope. He is using tweezers to pick up seeds from a black dish — Dustin preparing seed for analysis in the MSB seed cleaning laboratory. (Photo: Michael Way).

Dustin wearing a white lab coat, bent over a small black tray of seeds holding tweezers. Next to him on the bench is a microscope with a small black tray on ready for the next sample — Dustin preparing seed for analysis in the MSB cleaning laboratory. (Photo: Michael Way).

References

Chau, M.M., Chambers, T., Weisenberger, L., Keir, M., Kroessig, T.I., Wolkis, D., Kam, R. & Yoshinaga, A.Y. (2019) Seed freeze sensitivity and ex situ longevity of 295 species in the native Hawaiian flora. American Journal of Botany. 106: 1248-1270. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.1351
Daws, M.I., Garwood, N.C. & Pritchard, H.W. (2006) Prediction of desiccation sensitivity in seeds of woody species: a probabilistic model based on two seed traits and 104 species. Annals of Botany. 97: 667-674. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcl1022
Dickie, J.B. & Pritchard, H.W. (2002) Systematic and Evolutionary Aspects of Desiccation Tolerance in Seeds. In: Desiccation and Survival in Plants: drying without dying. Eds. Black, M. & Pritchard H.W. CABI publishing.
Hong, R.H. & Ellis, T.D. (1996) A protocol to determine seed storage behaviour. IPGRI Technical Bulletin No 1. Rome Italy: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute.
Kagame, S.P., Gichira, A.W., Chen, L., & Wang, Q. (2021) Systematics of Lobelioideae (Campanulaceae): review, phylogenetic and biogeographic analyses. PhytoKeys. 174: 13–45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.174.59555
Sakai, A.K., Wagner, W.L. & Mehrhoff, L.A. (2002) Patterns of endangerment in the Hawaiian flora. Systematic Biology. 51: 276-302. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10635150252899770
Tweddle, J.C., Dickie, J.B., Baskin, C.C. & Baskin, J.M. (2003) Ecological aspects of seed desiccation sensitivity. Journal of Ecology. 91: 294-304. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2745.2003.00760
Wagner, W.L., Herbst, D.R. & Lorence, D.H. (2005) Flora of the Hawaiian Islands website
Wagner, W.L., Herbst, D.R., Sohmer, S.H. & Wilson-Ramsey, Y. (1999) Manual of flowering plants of Hawai’i. University of Hawai’i Press.
Walsh, A. (2015) Delissea rhytidosperma. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015. e.T7986283. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T79862837A79862844.en
Walters, C. (2015) Genebanking seeds from natural populations. Natural Areas Journal. 35: 98-105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3375/043.035.0114
Wyse, S.V. & Dickie, J.B. (2017) Predicting the global incidence of seed desiccation sensitivity. Journal of Ecology. 105: 1082-1093. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12725

We have recently returned from the arctic, where we were carrying out the first year of fieldwork for a three-year project to conserve arctic flora. Funded by the Marris-Webbe Charitable Trust, the project will see seed collections made in three arctic locations – Svalbard (Norway), Disko Island (Greenland) and the Latnjajaure Lake area (Sweden). Research into the adaptability of tundra vegetation to climate change will be conducted, in addition to research looking at how resulting species and community level changes influence the functioning of arctic ecosystems. The Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) team will focus on the seed conservation aspects of the project, while Dr Anne Bjorkman’s team from the University of Gothenburg, Sweden will undertake the research and provide support with field sites and logistics.

Spitsbergen, the largest island in Svalbard, is not your typical summer destination – at 78°N, with forecast highs of 5°C, meltwater leading to boggy conditions and the promise of 24-hour sunlight, it sounded a long way from the heatwaves which enveloped Europe this year. The other fact that makes it stand out is that you cannot leave the main settlement of Longyearbyen (the world’s northernmost settlement) without a rifle and flares – to keep polar bears at bay.

The back of a lady who is carrying a backpack and also has a rifle over her shoulder — Safety in Svalbard. (Photo: RBG Kew).

The archipelago of Svalbard was completely ice-bound until 10,000 years ago, meaning that the vascular plant species found there have migrated relatively recently from Greenland, America, and Russia. The west coast of Spitsbergen (where the fieldwork took place) has a particularly favourable climate despite its latitude, as a result of the warm North Atlantic current.

A deep glacial valley with sparse low level vegetation and a rocky substrate. Two people are visible bending down looking at vegetation — Endolen to the east of Longyearbyen - our first collecting site. (Photo: RBG Kew).

A clump of short plants with flowering stems a couple of centimetres off the ground amongst a rocky substrate in a glacial valley. Two seed collectors are visible in the background — Bjørndale to the west of Longyearbyen to *Dryas octopetala*. (Photo: RBG Kew).

Luckily it had been an early spring this year, meaning that seed set was good when we arrived at the end of July. Over eight days we managed to make 20 collections from the area surrounding Longyearbyen. These included the Svalbard Poppy (Papaver dahlianum), Arctic Cottongrass (Eriophorum scheuchzeri), and the Polar Willow (Salix polaris). The latter is one of only two ‘trees’ to occur in Svalbard, and has a low, creeping form less than 5cm tall – quite different from most Willow trees we know in the UK! Everything we collected was less than 20cm tall, which meant a lot of bending down and kneeling, and our main competition for the seeds seemed to be the hungry reindeer and geese that we often found nearby. Having explored higher up the valleys towards the glaciers and right down the coast of the fjord where beluga whales could be spotted, we found that most of the seeds were (not surprisingly) found in the valley bottoms and lower slopes, and along the coast. The fewer plants found growing higher up had not yet had time for their seeds to ripen due to later snow melt and cooler temperatures.

Rocky ground substrate with two different small plants, the one on the left has lighter green leaves and fruiting stems a couple of centimetres tall. The one on the right has brighter green leaves and the fruiting stems are much closer to the ground. — Two *Saxifraga* species growing together (*Saxifraga cespitosa* left, and *Saxifraga oppositifolia* right). (Photo: RBG Kew).

Our collections, and their accompanying herbarium specimens will soon arrive back in the UK for us to process and store. Half of each seed collection and an herbarium specimen will be kept at the National Seed Bank of Norway, in the Botanical Garden in Oslo, to ensure the safety of the collections through duplication.

3 people standing in a row smiling behind a work bench. The work bench has a variety of paper envelopes and cloth bags on it along with a stack of herbarium specimens — Collections and vouchers safely delivered in Linn, Kristina and Tor at the National Seed Bank of Norway, Oslo. (Photo: RBG Kew).

Across the MSBP articles this issue come from Azerbaijan, Indonesia and Australia.

A far reaching view of lakes and mountains with a foreground close-up of specimens of purple and yellow flowers growing amongst lush grass on a steep incline — Goygol Lake, the Lesser Caucasus Mountains. (Photo: Fuad Guliyev).

The wild flora of Azerbaijan is extremely rich and diverse, with more than 5,000 species of higher plants. Azerbaijan's natural vegetation and its flora are exposed to anthropogenic influences, and the number of valuable plant species is decreasing, with some now threatened with extinction. This is gradually having a negative effect on the ecosystem. Our latest research shows that at least 10% of the higher plants of Azerbaijan are rare and endangered. There are many relicts as well as endemic plants of the Caucasus and Azerbaijan which are collected from their natural habitat for use in the production of food, fodder, medicine, spices or decorative items and have thus become rare. To address this, in recent years, the Institute of Botany has been carrying out research on the ex situ protection of endangered plants, as well as developing the intraspecies systematics reflecting the gene pool of those species; studying limiting factors under in situ conditions; including investigating the reasons for the increase of the limiting factors, and ecological assessments. Ecosystem management requires a comprehensive strategic approach, which means studying and protecting the coexistence of land, water, and wildlife, in other words, all living systems.

A flat-topped rock formation covered with lichen, water pools and a bubbling geyser — Istisu, Kalbajar district, Karabakh. (Photo: Elman Yusifov).

An important factor for the detection and documentation of rare and endangered plants is the preparation of Red Books and Red Lists. In 2013, the 2^nd edition of the Red Book of the Republic of Azerbaijan (300 plant species) was published. The results of scientific research show that the number of plants to be included on this list may now have doubled. To help identify the species that need protection, monitoring and expeditions are organised in different regions of the country based on lists compiled by Azerbaijani botanists ahead of the publication of the 3^rd edition of the Red Book of the Republic of Azerbaijan, due to be published in 2023. Two further books have already been written - "Red Book of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic" and "Rare plants of Ganja-Kazakh region". In order to preserve these studied species, information about the species is collected and action plans for in situ and ex situ conservation are prepared. It is especially important to study the rich flora and biodiversity of the Karabakh territory, characterised by its climate and landscape diversity. There are 121 rare Azerbaijan and Caucasus endemics found across Karabakh, which is famous for its unique flora but has remained unstudied for 30 years due to conflict. Most of these plants will need to be added to the 3^rd edition of the “Red Book”.

A white flowered plant growing out of a bed of grey shale viewed from above next to a GPS device showing the altitude as 3981 feet — *Cerastium latifolium* L. (Caryophyllaceae) at an altitude of 3989 m above sea level, the Greater Caucasus Mountains. (Photo: Elman Yusifov).

The Institute of Botany and the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership have been cooperating bilaterally for 10 years to protect biodiversity. The main goals of the partnership are the implementation of joint new projects, the exchange of personnel and experience, and joint research on priority areas. So, as a result of currently implemented joint projects, the seeds of approximately 40% of the rare and endangered higher plants included in the 2^nd edition of the Red Book of the Republic of Azerbaijan have been collected. These collections are stored in the Seed Bank of the Institute of Botany and duplicated at the Millennium Seed Bank and are important for the protection of those species in the future and for the implementation of restoration and reintroduction work over the coming years.

A group of 3 people crouching down around a plant specimen, one with a camera, one taking notes and one touching the plant. With mountainous hills and a barren, grassy landscape in the backgound — Field work in the upper mountain belt, Lerik district. (Photo: Aida Ibrahimova).

A dense sward of pink clover infloresences and leaves with one white clover in the centre. Amongst the clover are pink Geraniaceae flowers and their dissected leaves. Grass leaves are poking up through the sward — Highland meadow vegetation. (Photo: Sayyara Ibadullayeva).

Since its opening in 2006, the collections at Bali Botanic Gardens’ seedbank mainly came from garden plants (Lestari & Asih, 2015). Recognising the need to increase genetic diversity for restoration and re-introduction purposes (Rao et al., 2006), collecting wild plant seeds began on Nusa Penida in 2018, and then in Bali Barat National Park in 2019. The seedbank also started to receive seed collections from Bali Botanic Gardens’ flora exploration teams at that time.

However, seed harvest and collection management efforts at Bali Botanic Gardens’ seedbank still did not entirely comply with the standardised seed banking procedures recommended by Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank. Increasing the capacity of staff at Bali Botanic Gardens was seen as a way to address this condition which might otherwise hamper the seedbank’s conservation effort. The capacity improvement need was highlighted further by the fact that in 2016, Bali Botanic Gardens seedbank had become part of the collaboration between the Indonesian Botanical Gardens Seedbank and the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP).

Staff from Bali Botanic Gardens attended several capacity building activities hosted by the MSBP Kew team. The first was the regional Seed Conservation Techniques course held in Cibodas Botanic Gardens from 25^th - 29^th April 2017 (Figure 1). In the same year, a member of staff from Bali Botanic Gardens attended the 19-day Seed Conservation Techniques training course held at the MSB, Kew. These courses were very beneficial as the material and practical activities were provided directly by the Millennium Seed Bank teams.

A row of people all stood smiling in front of a wooden building holding a banner reading Regional Seed Conservation Technique Course — Figure 1a. Regional seed conservation techniques course at Cibodas Botanic Garden. (Photo: BRIN).

A group of people stood around a table with plastic trays on it listening — Figure 1b. Regional seed conservation techniques course at Cibodas Botanic Garden. (Photo: BRIN).

Seed banking capacity improvements at Bali Botanic Gardens needed to reach as many people as possible. Transferring knowledge to one or two staff members would not have been practical for the long term as staff at the seedbank are continuously changing. Thus, in September 2020 Bali Botanic Gardens seed banking staff met with others from all Indonesian Botanic Gardens to share and discuss their experiences in seed collection following MSBP standards. As travelling at that time was restricted due to COVID-19, the meeting was held virtually. The meeting gave staff valuable insight into seed and data collection processes to be used during and after field trips. However, confusion and uncertainty remained in the minds of staff as most had never used these processes first-hand.

6 people sat around a desk a large projector screen on the wall with a virtual meeting happening. — Figure 2: Virtual meeting to familiarize Indonesian Botanic Gardens Seed Banking team with seed collection procedures. (Photo: Bali Botanic Garden Seed Banking Team).

As a follow up, two seed and data collection practice sessions were conducted in October 2020, with the objective to provide staff with a glimpse of what they would do during the seed collection process. Both sessions were held in Bali Botanic Gardens, first with the Proteaceae collection and then with the Legumes collection (Figure 3). Although the first session was pretty challenging, the second went more smoothly as the staff were already familiar with the procedure and forms that would be needed in the field.

Four people stand in the Bali Botanic Gardens, two look up to the tree canopy, one leans against a tree trunk reading some notes, the other stands looking at her clipboard — Field practice on seed collection. (Photo: Bali Botanic Garden Seed Banking team).

In 2021, nine Bali Botanic Gardens staff participated in a virtual seed banking training session held by the MSBP, in partnership with various stakeholders in Indonesia. For this training, a small number of staff participated together in the office, to support those unfamiliar with virtual meetings (Figure 4).

Three people sit in a classroom looking at a microsoft teams meeting projected on the wall — Bali Botanic Garden staff participate in a virtual seed banking course. (Photo: Bali Botanic Garden Seed Banking team).

The training was very beneficial and provided the staff with the basic knowledge needed to maintain collections in the seedbank, including how to conduct seed viability tests, collection data management and other aspects regarding seed collection maintenance. The training also provided an opportunity for the staff to interact with the MSBP team, discuss and clear all confusion regarding seed banking procedures. The training gave staff a much more comprehensive understanding of the seed collection process and know how to maintain their collection in the seedbank.

We hope that the capacity strengthening conducted over the years will improve the standard of the Bali Botanic Gardens’ seed banking efforts in the future. We also hope that by involving a wider group in the capacity building activities, including staff not currently posted at the seedbank and a university student (at the second field practice), we will ensure the longevity of the seed banking efforts.

References

Lestari, D. & Asih, N.P.S. (2015) Pengelolaan bank biji Kebun Raya Eka Karya Bali. Proc. Masy. Biodiv. Indonesia. 1(3): 515-520.
Rao, N.K., Hanson, J., Dulloo, M.E., Ghosh, K., Nowell, D. & Larinde, M. (2006) Manual of Seed Handling in Genebanks. Biodiversity International, Rome.

The Australian Black Summer of 2019-20 saw the western half of Kangaroo Island, South Australia burnt by intense bushfires. More than 167,000 hectares were affected, largely comprised of remnant bushland, with 83% of the area burnt at high to very high severity. Kangaroo Island, along with the adjacent Mt. Lofty Ranges, is one of Australia’s 15 ‘Biodiversity Hotspots’ – concentrated areas of high biodiversity characterised by elevated levels of endemism.

A landscape with black burnt shrub branches sticking up in stark contrast to the sandy soil. Some of the shrubs are showing evidence of regeneration with leaves sprouting from the base — Burnt landscape of Kangaroo Island post-fire. (Photo: SASCC).

The team from the South Australian Seed Conservation Centre (SASCC) arrived on the island shortly after these catastrophic fires to assess the post-fire response of some of the island’s endemic and threatened flora and, where possible, collect germplasm for long-term storage at the Botanic Gardens and State Herbarium, South Australia. Sensing the community’s desire to not only restore what was lost during the fires, but also to be better prepared for the next fire event, the SASCC devised the novel concept of a ‘seed production garden’.

A grant delivered through the Australian Seed Bank Partnership, funded by the Commonwealth Government of Australia, was used to develop the Kangaroo Island Seed Production Garden (SPG). The vision is to create an aesthetic garden of genetically diverse, living plant collections that can be used for conservation, restoration and translocation, population supplementation, research and seed banking, and is supported by the local community, benefactors (Paton Family), business (Troppo Architects) and several environmental NGOs (Bio-R, Nature Conservation Society of South Australia). An important aspect of this community-led garden will be to introduce members of the local community and visitors to the island’s threatened flora. Targeted seed production will also bridge an existing gap in the restoration of self-perpetuating populations of many threatened plant species on the island by ensuring the availability of sufficient, genetically robust and sustainably sourced propagules.

A photo montage of artists impressions of the Kangaroo Island Seed Production Garden from different angles, showing a raised open building with a slanted roof with solar panels. There is a small open seating area looking out over the gardens. The gardens have lots of different beds spread out with curved paths running between them — Concept design for Kangaroo Island Seed Production Garden. (Photo: Troppo Architects).

The development of the SPG is the result of almost two decades of seed collecting trips to the island by the SASCC team. The island boasts 60 endemic plant species, many of which were already germplasm-banked at the Botanic Gardens in Adelaide at the time of the fire. The SASCC was able to utilise some of this material – often collected when wild populations were larger and most likely had higher levels of genetic diversity – to propagate plants for introduction to the SPG. Excess propagules were also distributed to conservation-minded community members to augment existing populations or to establish new populations.

While the concept of seed production areas is nothing new, the idea of marrying utilitarian seed production with an inviting, aesthetic garden setting may be. Removed from the abstractions of formal reports and scientific literature, viewing a diverse collection of threatened plants up close and in a single convenient location makes the germplasm collection and propagation aspects of plant conservation tangible and hands-on. Rather than traversing dense vegetation to reach an isolated swamp in a remote Wilderness Protection Area at the western end of Kangaroo Island, a volunteer or visitor can witness the splendour of the Vulnerable, midday blooming aquatic Nymphoides geminata (Menyanthaceae), collect seeds from dehiscing fruits and propagate plants for translocation – all just 20 minutes from the island’s major township of Kingscote.

The half-hectare garden has been fenced to exclude browsing kangaroos, wallabies and possums and is landscaped with different soils and water features to match the habitats of the species being grown. On 9^th July 2022 the SPG was officially opened by the State Minister for Climate, Environment and Water, the Hon. Susan Close MP, in the company of dozens of community members. During the opening the first 1,500 plants comprising over 60 threatened and endemic species were planted into the landscaped beds by eager volunteers.

A large group of volunteers within a fenced enclosure all working to plant out seedlings from plant pots spaced out over mounds of soil — Volunteers at the Seed Production Garden opening day. (Photo: SASCC).

At present, only one quarter of the garden has been planted, with enormous scope for the inclusion of additional species, multiple provenances and in-ground germination research. The SASCC team is now working on harnessing the public interest that the development of the garden has received into a ‘Friends of the Kangaroo Island Seed Production Garden’. This group will have a large ongoing role in the operation of the garden. The SASCC will provide technical guidance, including training volunteers in seed collection techniques, plant propagation and searching for new wild populations of target species. After what was for many Kangaroo Island residents a traumatic event, it has been wonderful to see people’s energy focused towards what will hopefully be a long-lived and substantive contribution to plant conservation in South Australia.

During a visit by MSB coordinators to Indonesia in August this year, they interviewed Dr Dian Latifah about her experiences of how she got into seed banking, her job and what are the challenges for seed banking in Indonesia.

Dr Dian Latifah stood next to Liz Truss presenting her with a book. They are stood in front of a round memorial building of 8 large white pillars with a central plinth with a plaque on. — Dr Dian Latifah welcoming British Prime Minister Liz Truss, at the time Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs of the United Kingdom, to Bogor Botanic Gardens in 2021. (Photo: Dina Safainanugraha).

How did you become interested in plant conservation?

Since I was a kid I loved growing plants in our garden, and my parents loved it too. That influenced me to take my BSc in Agronomy at IPB university. I did my BSc thesis on the seed science of rice. Then I applied to LIPI to be a seed scientist working on wild plants. I’ve been doing research on seed conservation since then.

My MSc and PhD were also on seed science, this time on palm regeneration of wild palms in Queensland. I spent 5½ years in Australia.

How has seed conservation at Bogor Botanic Garden (BBG) changed since you began working?

When I started working at Bogor Botanic Gardens, they collected orthodox seeds from the gardens, didn’t measure their moisture content and stored them at room temperature. Our director at the time, Dr Didik Widyatmoko (now he is a research professor), wanted to improve seed bank procedures, so my colleagues the late Mr Sutrisno, Dr Siti Roosita and I wrote a proposal to get state funding for seed bank development. After we got the funding, I searched online to find where I could do training and discovered the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB). I contacted the MSB and attended the Seed Conservation Techniques course in 2015, and our partnership developed from there.

Why is seed conservation important to BRIN (Research Centre for Plant Conservation, Botanic Gardens and Forestry at National Research and Innovation Agency of the Republic of Indonesia) and Indonesia?

At the start, the strategy for ex situ conservation, consisted of living collections and seed banking. Both have pros and cons. E.g., Living collections need more space, but the seed bank only needs a little space, and we can store a much greater diversity of plants. Therefore, we focused on both. We follow GSPC Target 8 that 75% of a country’s biodiversity should be stored ex situ in-country, and seed banking contributes to that. From the start, we have been building the collections through field work, prioritising rare and endemic plants, and those with economic potential, for example, Myristica spp. (nutmeg) and Eusideroxylon zwagerii (ironwood).

A seed bank is a big investment, and we need to show value for money. We do this through increasing collaboration with students, academics and the public.

Indonesia is a very large country, with lots of islands. You have two big seed conservation projects with the MSB. How do you organise your teams to collect from the different parts of Indonesia?

At the start I asked for proposals from my colleagues at the four botanic gardens in Bogor, Cibodas and Purwodadi (Java) and Eka Karya (Bali) and submitted them to Kew. We now have 11 sub-projects covering different geographic regions, aiming to collect over 1,000 species, under the Arcadia Threatened Biodiversity Hotspots project. This project lasts for three years until 2024 and each year we organise field trips to different islands, from Sumatra to Papua. We chose several National Parks and Nature Reserves that have high biodiversity and where we have built up a good relationship with the authorities

What are the challenges for seed collecting in tropical forests?

(Laughs). First, we are dealing with remote areas and challenging weather – it rains a lot so it may limit the time available for seed collecting and reduce access to the areas. There is also a lack of information on fruiting seasons – we may get some advice from the park rangers, but when we arrive the fruits are immature. Then there is often a lack of information on seed storage behaviour on references like the Seed Compendium, other articles, SID and the Wyse predictor – sometimes we are not sure if a species is orthodox or not, and when we try to do storage or germination experiments it seems to be recalcitrant. It is difficult to get enough seeds, up to 10,000. On average, we often can only get from 250 to 3,000. We may only be able to find a small number of trees, often less than five, and the ones we can find may be inaccessible. Finally, we need up to seven different letters and permits with named target species to collect and conserve seeds from protected areas and it may take weeks to get them, so we have to start planning well in advance of each trip.

How would you like the Kew-BRIN partnership developing in the future?

We would like to extend the project in Mt Ciremai National Park, to achieve more significant results. The current project, funded by the Garfield Weston Foundation, is a combination of seed conservation and utilisation for restoration, that involves several parties, including Mt Ciremai National Park, Kuningan Botanic Gardens / Kuningan District Council, BRIN and Kew. The National Park has an ecosystem restoration programme underway, so our project will support this. We can involve Kuningan Botanical Garden as they have nursery skills. BRIN and KEW bring additional technical and scientific resources and help provide training and develop facilities.

The Arcadia project will end in 2024 and we would like to do more research on the seeds we have collected and monitor their viability, to learn more about the seed storage behaviour and longevity. For example, we have found problems with conservation of Begonia seeds, many of them are endemic and also have economic potential as amenity species. We’d also like to do more projects, such as setting up seed hubs in other parts of Indonesia for local seed storage and use.

A row of people all wearing facemasks stood against a wall. Above them on the wall is a sign which reads LIPI Bank BIJI Seed Bank — Dr Dian Latifah together with Head of Research Centre for Plant Conservation, Botanic Gardens and Forestry as well as colleagues from Bogor, Cibodas and RBG Kew as part of an MSBP Standards Review in August 2022. Picture taken at Indonesia's national seed bank at Bogor. (Photo: Dr Dian Latifah).

What is the most interesting plant you're working on at the moment?

Eusideroxylon zwagerii (ironwood) is an important species as it’s endangered and its timber is very high quality and has great economic value. It is known to have recalcitrant seeds, so we have been doing research on its seed storage behaviour and the best method of short-term storage. We can now store its seeds for up to three years!

Mouldy versus infested seeds? Scoring X-rays and germination tests

Can an X-ray detect fungal, bacterial or viral infections in a seed? When should seeds be classified as 'mouldy' or 'infested' in a germination test? Do insect infestations differ from fungal, viral or bacterial infections when scoring germination tests? We asked Sarah, Nicola and Rachael from the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) Seed Collections Team to talk us through the differences.

Can you spot seeds infested with fungus on an X-ray? And how should these be scored?

At the seed quality checking stage of seed processing, a seed counted as 'infested' can relate to either insect damage/ presence or a bacterial/ fungal/ viral infection.

Whilst an X-ray cannot always tell us if a seed is infected with a fungus, bacteria or a virus, sometimes it can be seen for example, as a darker grey 'shadow', spreading out across the seed from one point. This often has a vaguely granular texture rather than the pure white of a healthy seed. A seed can also be counted as 'infested' at this stage if the infection is so severe it is clear that the seed is non-viable from the outside. Or for some smaller seeded species, for example with many Scrophulariaceae, the contents can still appear solid on an X-ray. In these cases, you can do a cut-test instead of an X-ray to determine the internal morphology and quality.

The signs of insect infestation to look for on X-rays are tunnels, usually of increasing size, with a cavity at the end where the lava may be (Figure 1a). In some cases, a seed may have been almost entirely eaten by an insect, in which case the seed will appear as almost empty with a few lighter spots of content (likely frass) left behind (Figure 1b). Insect infested seeds also sometimes visibly show exit holes for larva on the outside of the seed coat, for example with some Fabaceae species. However, it should be noted that insect infestation does not necessarily mean that the seed is inviable, it can depend on how much of the seed has been consumed. At the MSB there is a ‘part full’ category alongside ‘full’, ‘empty’ and ‘infested’ for scoring X-rays which can be used if there is some uncertainty as to whether enough of the seed embryo remains (has not been eaten) for the seed to still be viable.

Many white oval healthy seeds, but three seeds are highlighted by red circles. The oval embryos of these seed are greyer than the other and each contain a small dark curved arc within them where the larva is — Figure 1a: An X-ray image of the seeds of *Fraxinus excelsior* showing larval infestation in some of the seeds (red circles). (Photo: RBG Kew).

Lots of white healthy oval embryos and a few which are duller grey indicating empty seeds. Two seeds are circled red, these seeds are mostly dark grey bust have smaller lighter patched at one end — Figure 1b: An X-ray image of the seeds of *Fraxinus excelsior*. Red circles highlight examples where the majority of the contents has been eaten by insects and minimal contents remain. (Photo: RBG Kew).

Should those seeds which are black at the end of the germination test be recorded as 'mouldy' or 'infested'?

NB. When you are setting up a germination test, if you have any concerns about the seeds, you can do a cut-test on a sub-sample prior to setting up the test.

At the MSB we use six different categories to classify seeds during a germination test (Table 1). But when you’re scoring your test as you go along or are doing your cut-test at the end, you may have some degree of fungal growth and it is not always clear under which category the seeds should be classified.

**Table 1**: Germination test seed classifications
Category	Include in germination calculation?
Germinated	Included as 'germinated'
Abnormal	Included as 'not germinated'
Fresh	Included as 'not germinated'
Mouldy	Included as 'not germinated'
Empty	Not included
Infested	Not included

'Infested' varies from 'mouldy' in that a seed should be classified as 'mouldy' if you can see signs that there was suitable initial morphology at the start to enable germination, i.e., an embryo was present (Figure 2a). If this is not possible to detect the seed should be classified as 'infested' (Figure 2b). If a seed is classified as 'mouldy' it could suggest that the seeds have either lost their viability over time, there was poor test hygiene, or that the germination conditions were incorrect, e.g., too warm.

The two halves of the seed are deformed and light brown in colour, there is a dark creamy colour to the inside of the seed but it does not look solid — Figure 2a: A cross section of a mouldy *Daucus carota* seed. (Photo: RBG Kew).

The two halves of the dissected seed each have a small hollow within them where the embryo within the seed has been eaten. At the ends of the seed are small sections of the embryo remaining but not enough for germination to occur — Figure 2b: A cross section of an infested *Daucus carota* seed. (Photo: RBG Kew).

A cross section of a seed showing a clearly defined light brown seed coat and a creamy white embryo with no sign of damage. — Figure 2c: A cross section of a viable *Daucus carota* seed. (Photo: RBG Kew).

Is it possible for fungal spores to spread from one seed to another during storage?

It would be possible for a fungus to spread between seeds during the cleaning process if equipment is not cleaned properly between uses or if the seeds come into close contact with an infected batch whilst drying. Once the seeds are dried and sealed for banking, assuming they are fully sealed, it is less likely for fungal spores to transfer between collections. The other possible source of fungal spores for infection could be the medium used for germination testing, e.g., agar, or from the air whilst setting up the test. If you suspect seeds could be infected with fungal spores, it is possible to sanitise the seeds prior to starting the germination test. This can be done by soaking the seeds in 0.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution, containing a 1% surfactant (Tween 20) for 10 minutes and then rinsing under running water for 1 minute (see Technical Information Note 13a). Once the germination tests are set up, the container they are in should be sealed inside a plastic bag to reduce the chance on contamination (this also helps to prevent moisture loss). In addition, 'mouldy' and 'infested' seeds should be removed from the test as it progresses to limit the influence they have, and tests can be re-plated during the test if fungal growth gets too bad.

Further information on setting up germination tests can be found in Technical Information Note 13a.

Recent publications from across the MSBP:

McGinn, K.J. (2022) Establishing the National Seed Bank of Wales: collecting, conserving and restoring the Welsh flora. Sibbaldia. 21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24823/Sibbaldia.2022.1889

Issue 3: June 2022

In this issue we hear about field adventures in Madagascar and Zambia, research studies from Georgia, Italy and the UK, and about the latest edition of the Australian Plant Germplasm Conservation guidelines. We interview Naomi Carvey, MSBP Data Warehouse Officer at the MSB and the species profile is the US endemic Daucosma laciniata.

Leaves and small round green fruits Psydrax sambiranesis — *Psydrax sambiranensis*, Madagascar. (Photo: Vonona Randrianasolo, KMCC).

A pot with a single seedling growing showing the leaves with pairs of leaflets — *Daniellia alsteeniana* seedling, Zambia. (Photo: David Mwale, FDR).

Close up of Daucosma laciniata in flower, with the white flowers within the umbel and the divided bracts. — *Daucosma laciniata*, USA. (Photo: Bill Carr, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center).

Five plant pots each with a different species of Brassica being grown showing a variety of leaf morphologies — *Brassica* seedings, growing at the MSB. (Photo: Pablo Gómez).

Madagascar is committed to achieving Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, and in the spirit of any post-2020 targets, we wish to ensure that all our threatened flora is conserved, and available as ex situ material for future conservation, restoration and research. For MSBP Madagascar this means, we want to rapidly increase the number of threatened species conserved as seed collections, where possible. The Kew MSBP Madagascar team, in collaboration with our national partners, the Silo National des Graines Forestières (SNGF) is implementing the Global Tree Seed Bank Programme and we have adopted a new collection strategy based on geographical gaps in our current collections. An analysis of the collection density over the years has given us a clear picture that the majority of the collections made so far, have been from outside protected areas. To compensate for this spatial anomaly, field trips carried out during 2022 are focussed on protected areas, in order to cover as many sites as possible to ensure the collection and ex situ conservation of species of restricted distributions, including large numbers of more threatened species.

Initially, six potential sites located in the northern part of Madagascar were chosen, four of which were new to the MSBP. These are the Kasijy, Ankarana, Andrafiamena Andavakoera and Analamerana Protected Areas. Each site has its own climatic and geographical specificities that affect the distribution of the different types of vegetation. There is xerophytic vegetation on the Tsingy (Ankarana, Montagnes des Français Protected Areas), deciduous dry forests (Kasijy, Analamerana, Andrafiamena Andavakoera, Ankarana Protected Areas) and degraded dry forest in the rocky hills around Ambilobe.

A limestone outcrop with trees and shrubs growing on it and trees in the foreground. — A vegetated limestone outcrop in Montagne des Français. (Photo: Vonona Randrianasolo).

In Madagascar, accessibility to many sites by vehicle is almost impossible especially during the rainy season, and this has been made worse as a result of the cyclones we have witnessed over the past few years. The team's fieldwork in January and March coincided with the passage of two cyclones in the north eastern part of the island, which subsequently led to heavy rains in the region. This has greatly affected our fieldwork plans. For example, the visit to Andrafiamena Andavakoera had to be abandoned due to the rise of the Irodo rivers that have to be crossed to reach the site. Our Landrovers are good, but 6ft deep rivers in spate are a match for any wading vehicle!

A muddy pathway leading to shrubland with two seed collectors carrying collections and equipment — Access path to Analamerana Forest. (Photo: Nomentsoa Randriamamonjy, KMCC).

Two men in a dug-out canoe crossing a wide river — Crossing the Irodo river in Analamerana Protected Area. (Photo: Nomentsoa Randriamamonjy, KMCC).

The team had a memorable 14-day collection trip recently to Kasijy. From our base it is a two day drive to the regional headquarters where we spent the next day securing access and collecting permits. We then had a two and a half day trek simply to reach the forest edge. The subsequent four days spent collecting yielded 14 collections, all new for us. I am very proud of the team commitment this effort showed.

Working in new sites is a big challenge especially with a poorly known flora like Madagascar. A lot of the information we have for our target species does not correspond with what we find on the ground. Predicting fruiting periods and seed maturity based on herbarium data has not been very successful and for many sites, we do not have the network of collaborators on the ground to monitor phenology. We are also witnessing a wide variation in periods of seed maturity between species at a particular site. Securing seed from many species on one site visit is therefore, a challenge. Many of these protected areas are void of roads and paths and it has proven very difficult to assess the total population size for our target species.

Of the 82 collections made during these six collection missions, 11 are thought to be new to the MSB collections and 19 are threatened species.

Among the many interesting trees harvested during these field trips was Psydrax sambiranensis. Assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) and known only at one site in the rocky hills around Ambilobe district, it is threatened by rock mining for construction. With the post harvest work of SNGF, all these seed collections have now been cleaned and are ready for duplication to the MSB for long-term storage.

Leaves and small round green fruits of Psydrax sambiranesis — *Psydrax sambiranensis* (Critically Endangered). (Photo: Vonona Randrianasolo).

Four people sitting on a plastic sheet in a grassy area, cleaning a pile of seeds — Cleaning seeds in the field. (Photo: Ando Andriamanohera).

Daniellia alsteeniana P.A.Duvign. locally known as Mukulabushiku in our Bemba language is a conspicuous and very ornamental tree with large pink flowers growing to some 25m. It belongs to the Caesalpinioideae sub-family of legumes, and in the Northern parts of Zambia it is considered a threatened species through over-exploitation for its timber and resin. It is highly valued by local people providing construction materials for housing, canoes, crates and decorative veneer.

Currently the species is Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List and whilst we recognise that large, healthy populations of the species are still to be found in Angola and the DRC, due to its over-exploitation in Zambia we made this a priority for our collection programme. We intend to make seed material much more widely available for the many restoration projects currently being launched amongst these Miombo woodlands in Zambia. Lab-based germination reaches 98% and seeds are easily raised in field nurseries.

Four members of the FDR/MSB team stood next to a bench. The bench has trays of seeds on and equipment used for seed processing including funnels and jars. — The FDR/MSB team processing seed of *D. alsteeniana*. (Photo: FDR).

Herbarium vouchers stored at one of the largest and oldest Zambian National Herbariums (NDO) located in Kitwe, show plant specimens collected in Kasama (1957) and Kawambwa (1958) in Northern and Luapula provinces of Zambia, respectively. These 70-year-old records suggested fruiting occurred between October and November but following our collection trips to these areas in 2019, we found the seed was actually at the point of natural dispersal during August and September. Was this change in fruiting time something to do with our changing climate or simply a response to variation in the time of the rainy seasons? Our collection will add to our understanding of the fruiting behaviour of this species. We now have a good herbarium voucher, useful field images and a modest seed collection of some 3000 seeds stored here in Zambia with a safety duplicate at the MSB. We intend to revisit these provinces in the coming seasons to bulk-up these numbers with new collections.

The species dispersal mechanism is interesting. Each fruit (pod) contains 1-2 bi-convex oval and very glossy brown seeds each weighing about 4g. The funicle is persistent and so it seems to be the detached valve of the pod that falls, like a whirling samara, thus assisting dispersal of the attached seeds beyond the shadow of the crown.

A tear drop shaped seed pod split in half, at the pointed end of each half a brown oval seed is attached via the funicle. — The dehisced seed pod showing the seeds attached at the point of dispersal. (Photo: Mike Bingham).

Five oval brown seeds arranged in a circle each with a long grey persistent funicle pointing into the centre. — Showing the large seed size with the persistent funicles. (Photo: David Mwale, FDR, Zambia).

Modern plant taxonomy considers blackthorn (P. spinosa) as a conservative species. Fundamentally, phylogenetic niche conservatism refers to the tendency of species to retain their ancestral traits. There is a substantial difference in the interpretation of this term by Russian and European schools of botany. The floras of the USSR and post-soviet countries are rich in plant species with morphological, and in some cases, even phenological characteristics which vary over short distances across their spatial range.

The floras and plant nomenclatural checklists of the Black Sea countries of Ukraine, Moldova, and Turkey suggest the existence of blackthorn species, subspecies, and variations that share nearly the same ancestral traits as P. spinosa. These are: P. podolica Andrz. ex Trautv.; P. spinosa var. dasyphylla (Schur) Domin; P. kurdica Fenzl ex Fristch; P. spinosa subsp. dasyphylla (Schur) Domin; P. stepposa Kotov. Most of them, except for P. spinosa subsp. dasyphylla, are synonyms of P. spinosa according to the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). The old edition of the flora of Georgia (Sosnovsky, 1949; Gulisashvili, 1965) and the modern updates of the plant nomenclatural checklists for the country (Gagnidze et al., 2005; Davlianidze et al., 2018) indicate the distribution of the single taxon P. spinosa in the country. However, the local botanist N. N. Bregadze discovered five sub-taxa (all considered synonyms in GBIF) within the local population of this species:

var. ovaliputaminata,
var. subglobosoputaminata,
f. globosodrupacea,
f. ovalidrupacea,
f. plano-subgloboso-drupacea.

The description of the morphological characteristics of these varieties and forms is provided in the study “The Botanical and systematical research of the diversity of Prunus spinosa L.” (Botaniko-sistematicheskoe Izuchenie Prunus spinosa L. in Russian) published in 1976. The study was soon followed by a series of more comprehensive studies on the diversity of the Prunus genus L. in the South Caucasus conducted by another local botanist Eugenia Baiashvili who revealed the existence of differences in the chromosome number of individuals of P. spinosa in the country. The compilation of her articles on this topic was published as a monograph in 2010 (Baiashvili, 2010).

The discovery of the higher level of intraspecific variability inspired us to conduct a case study where we researched the population diversity of blackthorn in Georgia with the use of the modern methods of morphometry and plant genetics. The research was carried out as part of the “Enhancing Rural Caucasian Community Livelihoods Through Fruit and Nut Conservation” project and responded to its general aim of collecting and interpreting information about the globally and locally threatened species to raise local public awareness about the diversity of these key groups of plants.

The morphological study revealed three clusters of individuals, two clusters (clusters A, B; Fig. 1) weakly separated individuals of P. spinosa on the basis of the height of the shrub and leaf size i.e., these clusters included large and small-sized shrubs which are not associated with specific habitats or geographic sites in Georgia with their distribution. The third cluster (Cluster C, Fig. 1) strongly separated morphologically distinct forms with oval-shaped leaves and elliptic fruits and fruit stones - generally distributed in drylands of the Samtskhe-Javakheti region in the south part of Georgia (Fig.'s 1 & 4).

Graph of PCA results along two axes, PC1 = 45.75%, PC2 = 25.8% — **Figure 1**: A graph showing the results of the Ordination analysis with three different clusters shown in red, black and blue symbols. A text description of this figure is available in the body of the text.

Outline map of Georgia — **Figure 2**: A country map of Georgia in green with the distribution of *P. spinosa* collections shown in red dots. A text description of this figure is available in the body of the text.

The results of the genetic study showed weak divergence both on the intra and interspecific levels in the studied samples which supports the assumption that the species emerged after quick evolutionary radiation in the plum genus. Despite the low resolution of the genetic divergence of the taxa in the studied groups, the results supported the data of the morphometric study by proving the existence of the difference in haplotype structure between the group of individuals of P. spinosa distributed in the south part of Georgia and the rest of the individuals of this species collected in the other parts of the country.

In the foreground, a line of P. spinosa shrubs leading to a researcher standing in the distance next to the shrubs. — **Figure 3**: Large shrub form of *P. spinosa*. (Photo: Ana Kvlividze).

A researcher sitting next to P spinosa shrubs and studying leaves whilst holding a notebook and pen. — **Figure 4**: Small shrub form of *P. spinosa*. (Photo: Tolkha Shetekauri).

In the foreground a P.spinosa shrub next to a stone outcrop with other trees and a blue sky in the background. — **Figure 5**: Morphological form of *P. spinosa* with oval-shaped leaves and elliptic fruits distributed in South part of Georgia. (Photo: Ana Kvlividze).

Our results support the observation of the local scientists N. N. Bregadze and E. Baiashvili, and provide a more complete understanding of the diversity of blackthorn and its distribution in the country. We plan to continue the research in the future to discover the diversity of the plum genus at larger geographical scales in the Caucasus. With the taxonomical and ecological aspects of the research, it is important to focus also on the collection of ethnobotanical information. Fruits of blackthorn are collected in all parts of the Caucasus by local people because of their gastronomical and medicinal properties. They are even sold in the small countryside and large markets in Georgia. In this respect, it will be interesting to find out if local people differentiate blackthorn fruits by taste or any other property as this information would serve as additional proof of our findings on the existence of morphological and genetic differences between the sub-populations of P. spinosa.

Acknowledgements

The research was carried out within the framework of the project “Enhancing Rural Caucasian Community Livelihoods Through Fruit and Nut Conservation” funded by the Darwin Initiative Foundation in collaboration with the National Botanical Garden of Georgia, the Botanical Institute of Ilia State University, Georgia, and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew from 2017-2021. As a result of this study, an MSc thesis with a similar title to this research was defended by A. Kvlividze at the Ilia State University in Georgia on February 18, 2022.

We are grateful to the project managers: Aisyah Faruk, Ian Willey, and David Kikodze, and Dr. Tsira Mikatadze-Pantsulaia - Head of the Plant Conservation Department at the National Botanical Garden of Georgia, for supporting this research.

References

Baiashvili, E. (2010) Phylogenetic study of genus Prunus L. (‘Kliavis (Prunus L.) Gvaris Philogenetikuri Shestsavla). Ed. Akhalkatsi, M. ; Botanical garden and the Institute of Botany. Tbilisi, Publishing house ‘Universal’. 130 pp.
Davlianidze M., Gviniashvili Ts., Mukbaniani M., JinjoliaImnadze L., Jugheli, T. (2018) Nomenclatural checklist of the flora of Georgia (Sakartvelos Phloris Nomenklaturuli Nuskha). Tbilisi, Publishing house ‘Universal’. 298pp. (in Georgian).
Gagnidze R.I., Maier G., Nakhutsrishvili G.S. (2005) Vascular Plants of Georgia: A Nomenclatural Checklist. Tbilisi, Georgian Academy of Sciences. 247pp.
Gulisashvili, S. [Ed.] (1965). Flora of the woody plants of the Caucasus, vol.: 4 (Rosacea-Leguminosae)(Kavkasiis Dendrophlora, Tomi IV (Rosacea-Leguminosae)). The Academy of Sciences of Georgian USSR, Institute of Forestry. Tbilisi, Publishing house ‘Metsniereba’. 405 pp. (in Georgian)
Sosnovsky, D. (1949) The Flora of Georgia, vol.: 5 (Rosacea-Leguminosae) (Sakartvelos Phlora, Tomi: V (Rosacea-Leguminosae)). Ed. Kharadze, A. Publishing and press of the Academy of Sciences of Georgian USSR, Tbilisi. 134 pp. (in Georgian)

Limited availability of data relating to regeneration traits has curbed macroecological research into the germination niche (Saatkamp et al., 2019). However, seed banks that focus on the ex situ conservation of wild species routinely carry out research to identify seed dormancy and germination requirements (Hay & Probert, 2013), which have become a valuable source for large-scale studies into seed germination (Sentinella et al., 2020).

In Europe, the European Native Seed Conservation Network, known as the ENSCONET Consortium, was established in August 2010 with the aim of maintaining significant levels of ex situ seed conservation activity for European native plant species. It builds on the success of the ENSCONET project, funded under the European Commission’s Sixth Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP6) between 2004 and 2009 (Eastwood & Müller, 2012). The objective of the initial project was to improve quality, coordination and integration of European seed conservation practice, policy and research for native plant species and to assist EU conservation policy and its obligations to the Convention on Biological Diversity and its Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (Müller, Eastwood & Linington, 2012). A total of 33 institutes across Europe currently constitute the ENSCONET Consortium, all of which have an explicit interest in seed conservation of European native plants. One of the successful outputs has been the establishment of the ENSCONET database (ENSCOBASE), an online database that has been storing data on European native seed accessions since 2005, covering all European geographical regions and major plant families (Rivière et al., 2018).

ENSCOBASE contains publicly available primary records of laboratory germination experiments from multiple seed banks across all European Biogeographical Regions. It holds information on experimental germination conditions (germination temperature, diurnal temperature regime, light and dormancy-breaking treatments), alongside seed viability records and the associated seed lot metadata (e.g. biogeographical region; Fig. 1). As such, ENSCOBASE represents a valuable source of information to understand the macroecology of seed germination. Yet, there are challenges to the analysis and interpretation of the data, mainly due to the inherent heterogeneity related to each seed bank employing differing seed processing protocols. This between-study variation, in terms of meta-analysis theory can be addressed by applying recent developments in phylogenetic meta-analytical methods (Garamszegi, 2014). Based on this approach, we recently conducted a meta-analysis of the germination data stored in ENSCOBASE (Carta et al., 2022), finding that climate, specifically drought and cold seasons, shape the germination niche of temperate plants. The methodology used was able to account for between-study variation relating to seed sources and physiological status, thereby highlighting how large datasets generated by conservation seed banking can be a valuable resource in addressing questions in plant macroecology and evolution. We started the process in 2018, and although initially we found the heterogeneity of the original data difficult to manage, the resulting experience and eventual outcome proved to be a worthwhile and impactful study of the European flora.

Outline map of Europe with different colours indicating the area covered by different biogeographical regions — Figure 1: Map of European Biogeographical Regions. A text description of the map is available. (Source: EEA).

References

Carta, A., Fernández-Pascual, E., Gioria, M., Müller, J.V., Rivière, S., Rosbakh, S., Saatkamp A., Vandelook F. & Mattana, E. (2022) Climate shapes the seed germination niche of temperate flowering plants: a meta-analysis of European seed conservation data. Annals of Botany. mcac037. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcac037
Eastwood, R. & Müller, J.V. (2012) Achievements of the European Native Seed Conservation Network – ENSCONET. In: Maxted, N., Ehsan Dulloo, M., Ford-Lloyd, B.V., Frese, L., Iriondo, J., Pinheiro de Carvalho, M.A.A. Eds. Agrobiodiversity conservation: securing the diversity of crop wild relatives and landraces. pp. 286-291. Wallingford. CABI.
Garamszegi, L.Z. (2014) Modern phylogenetic comparative methods and their application in evolutionary biology: concepts and practice. Heidelberg; London. Springer Verlag.
Hay, F.R. & Probert, R.J. (2013) Advances in seed conservation of wild plant species: a review of recent research. Conservation Physiology. 1(1): cot030. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/cot030
Müller, J.V., Eastwood, R. & Linington, S. (2012) ENSCONET: a milestone for European seed conservation. Studi Trentini de Scienze Naturali. 90: 209–210.
Rivière, S., Breman, E., Kiehn, M., Carta, A. & Müller, J.V. (2018) How to meet the 2020 GSPC target 8 in Europe: priority-setting for seed banking of native threatened plants. Biodiversity and Conservation. 27: 1873-1890. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-018-1513-2
Saatkamp, A., Cochrane, A., Commander, L., Guja, L.K., Jimenez-Alfaro, B., Larson, J., Nicotra, A., Poschlod, P., Silveira, F.A.O., Cross, A.T., Dalziell, E.L., Dickie, J., Erickson, T.E., Fidelis, A., Fuchs, A., Golos, P.J., Hope, M., Lewandrowski, W., Merrit, D.J., Miller, B.P., Miller, R.G., Offord, C.A., Ooi, M.K.J., Satyanti, A., Sommerville, K.D., Tangney, R., Tomlinson, S., Turner, S. & Walck, J. et al. (2019) A research agenda for seed-trait functional ecology. New Phytologist. 221(4): 1764-1775. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15502
Sentinella, A.T., Warton, D.I., Sherwin, W.B., Offord, C.A. & Moles, A.T. (2020) Tropical plants do not have narrower temperature tolerances, but are more at risk from warming because they are close to their upper thermal limits. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 29(8): 1387-1398. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13117

Text description of Figure 1: Map of European Biogeographical Regions

A map of Europe showing the areas covered by 11 different biogeographical regions. The Alpine biogeographic region covers most of Norway, and is also present in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathian Mountains, the Balkan Mountains, the Caucasus Mountains, the Ural Mountains and a small section of the Apennines in central Italy. The Anatolian biogeographic region covers the central area of Turkey. The Arctic biogeographic region covers Iceland, Svalbard, Novaya Zemlya and northern Russia. The Black Sea biogeographic region covers extends around the coast of the Black Sea from Bulgaria, through Turkey and into Georgia (west to east). The Atlantic biogeographic region covers the United Kingdom, Ireland, northern Spain, westerns parts of France and Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands and northern Germany. The Boreal biogeographic region extends from Sweden east covering Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, northern Belarus and western Russia. The Continental biogeographic region extends from western France through southern and eastern Germany, Czechia, Poland, southern Belarus and northern Ukraine into Russia, also extending south into northern Moldova, eastern Romania and Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, northern Croatia and north-west Italy. The Mediterranean biogeographic region extends from Portugal and Spain, east into southern France, western areas of Italy and coastal areas of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey. The Pannonian biogeographic region covers Hungary, north into Slovakia and south into northern Serbia. The Steppic biogeographic region extends from western Romania along the Black Sea coast into southern Ukraine and Russia

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The third edition of ‘Plant Germplasm Conservation in Australia – strategies and guidelines for developing, managing and utilising ex situ collections’ was recently released by the Australian Network for Plant Conservation (ANPC) and the Australian Seed Bank Partnership (ASBP) (Fig. 1). These ‘Germplasm Guidelines’ are practical, technical and evidence-based, providing a workflow to address each step of acquiring, maintaining and utilising genetically representative collections (Fig. 2).

Plant Germplasm Conservation in Australia, strategies and guidelines for developing, managing and utilising ex situ collections in Australia. Third edition. Edited by Amelia J. Martyn Yenson, Catherine A. Offord, Patricia F. Meagher, Tony Auld, David Bush, David J. Coates, Lucy E. Commander, Lydia Guja, Sally L. Norton, R.O. (Bob) Makinson, Rebecca Stanley, Neville Walsh, Damian Wrigley, Linda Broadhurst. — Figure 1: Cover image of ‘Plant Germplasm Conservation in Australia’ 3^rd edition. (Image: ANPC).

Six steps for deciding ex situ conservation options — Figure 2: Decision flowchart for *ex situ* conservation options. A text description of the flow chart is available. (Source: Offord, C.A., Makinson, R.O., Guja, L., Auld, T.D. (2021) Options, major considerations and preparation for plant germplasm conservation. In Martyn Yenson, A.J., Offord, C.A., Meagher, P.F., Auld, T.D., Bush, D., Coates, D.J., Commander, L.E., Guja, L.K., Norton, S.L., Makinson, R.O., Stanley, R., Walsh, N., Wrigley, D. & Broadhurst, L. (Eds.) *Plant Germplasm Conservation in Australia: strategies and guidelines for developing, managing and utilising ex situ collections.* Third Edition. Canberra. Australian Network for Plant Conservation).

These Guidelines bring together decades of research and experience in conserving Australian plants in seed banks, botanic gardens and conservation nurseries (Fig. 3). They take readers through the genetics and practice of acquiring collections and the processes of seed banking, tissue culture, cryopreservation, and living collections maintenance, with 50 case studies to highlight the application of research and theory. In this edition, we add new chapters on the role of the nursery and identifying and conserving non-orthodox seeds. We also address the need to capture and utilise ‘special’ types of germplasm (material from ferns, mosses, liverworts), or taxa with ‘special’ life history stages or growing requirements (terrestrial orchids with mycorrhizal associations, carnivorous and parasitic plants). With an eye to the future, we finish with new chapters on risk management, and collection maintenance and utilisation. We gratefully acknowledge the input of 78 contributors from across the restoration and agriculture sectors, botanic gardens, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and universities, as well as the Kew Millennium Seed Bank, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, the Center for Plant Conservation and the Exceptional Plants Conservation Network to update this edition; and thank The Ian Potter Foundation for funding this project.

A map of Australia split into the different states indicating the location and facilities of the major Australian flora conservation centres. — Figure 3: Location of major *ex situ* conservation facilities for Australian flora, including ASBP Partners, the Australian Tree Seed Centre, the Australian Grains Genebank and Australian Pastures Genebank (both storing crop wild relatives) and major forestry seed banks with conservation collections. A text description of the map is available. (Image: CAM Graphics; Offord, C.A., Makinson, R.O., Guja, L., Auld, T.D. (2021) Options, major considerations and preparation for plant germplasm conservation. In Martyn Yenson, A.J., Offord, C.A., Meagher, P.F., Auld, T.D., Bush, D., Coates, D.J., Commander, L.E., Guja, L.K., Norton, S.L., Makinson, R.O., Stanley, R., Walsh, N., Wrigley, D. & Broadhurst, L. (Eds.) *Plant Germplasm Conservation in Australia: strategies and guidelines for developing, managing and utilising ex situ collections.* Third Edition. Canberra, Australian Network for Plant Conservation.).

The Germplasm Guidelines were launched by Prof. Tim Entwisle during the Australasian Seed Science Conference in September 2021. This virtual meeting tackled issues across seed biology and ecology through to the sourcing, end-use and management of seed collections, as well as the roles that seeds play in local and global culture. As a fully-virtual meeting the conference attracted 425 delegates from 34 countries, enabling researchers to share their work, including the new edition of the Germplasm Guidelines with an engaged international audience. Additional funding from the Australian Academy of Science is enabling the ANPC to continue these discussions through the Australian Academy of Science Fenner Conference on the Environment: ‘Exceptional times, exceptional plants’.

Exceptional plants include those species for which seeds are not available (not produced at all, inadequately produced, or non-viable), species with non-orthodox seeds (desiccation sensitive, freezing-sensitive or short-lived), and species with deeply dormant seeds. While the work of seed banks is important, and although the majority of seed-bearing plant species are considered to be orthodox, we still face challenges with many species when it comes to determining how to store them longer-term in ex situ conservation facilities and regenerate them from seed.

Many conventional seed banks are already working on exceptional species in collaboration with botanic gardens, nurseries and other experts to identify alternative options for conserving exceptional plant species. The 3rd edition of Germplasm Guidelines presents examples from around Australia through several informative case studies and workflows which may be of assistance to facilities that have recently started or are planning to commence work on exceptional species.

The Germplasm Guidelines are available for free download or ordering of print copies from the ANPC plant germplasm webpage.

The written guidelines are supported by high-quality video content accessible via the 'Plant Germplasm Conservation in Australia' playlist on the ANPC YouTube channel.

Dr. Amelia Martyn Yenson stood behind a bench in a seed laboratory looking at a book — Project Manager and lead editor for the Germplasm Guidelines revision, Dr. Amelia Martyn Yenson at the Australian PlantBank. (Photo: Michael Lawrence-Taylor).

**Text description for Figure 2: Decision flowchart for ex situ conservation options**

A flowchart for deciding ex situ conservation options, referencing the relevant chapter and section in the Germplasm Guidelines.

The taxon or population is considered at risk or in need of ex situ conservation (Chapter 1) leading to the questions (Section 2.3):

Have all major considerations been addressed?
- Is there a clear link to an in situ recovery process?
- Is it a precautionary collection?
- Is it for research or display?
- Is it an ‘exceptional species’? (Chapter 6)
What is the time frame?
What information is available?
Is seed available (preferred in most cases)?
Will you need to conduct preliminary trials on collection, storage or propagation?
Do you have the necessary resources? Can you get the necessary permits or permissions?

Using these it is then asked do the benefits of ex situ conservation outweigh the risks (Section 2.2)? If no, monitor populations or pursue other options, if yes decide ex situ options. If seed is not suitable, consider other options (Section 2.4, Chapter 8). Then collect material appropriate to the options chosen (Chapters 3 and 4).

Collected material can then be used in four different ways:

Seed banking (Chapters 5, 6 and 7)
Tissue culture, orchid and symbiont culture (Chapters 9 and 12)
Cryopreservation (Chapters 10 and 13)
Living plant collections (Chapter 11)

Material from these four options can then be utilised (for translocation, research etc.) and appropriate risk management implemented (Chapters 14 and 15).

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**Text description for Figure 3: Location of major ex situ conservation facilities for the Australian flora**

A map of Australia split by state showing the locations of the major ex situ conservation facilities for the Australian flora:

In the Northern Territory:
- George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens conservation seed bank which has seedbanking and nursery production facilities
- Alice Springs Desert Park which has seedbanking and nursery production facilities
In Western Australia:
- Western Australian Seed Centre, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Kensington, and Kings Park and Botanic Garden which has seedbanking, cryostorage, nursery production and micropropagation facilities
- Forest Products Commission Seed Centre which has seedbanking and nursery production facilities
In South Australia:
- The Australian Pastures Genebank, South Australian Research and Development Institute, which has seedbanking and nursery production facilities
- the South Australian Seed Conservation Centre, Botanic Gardens and State Herbarium of South Australia (BGSH), which has seed banking and nursery production facilities
In Victoria:
- The Australian Grains Genebank, Agriculture Victoria, which has seedbanking and nursery production facilities
- The Victorian Conservation Seedbank, Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria, which has seedbanking, nursery production and micropropagation facilities
In Tasmania:
- The Tasmanian Seed Centre, Sustainable Timber Tasmania, which has seedbanking and nursery production facilities
- The Tasmanian Seed Conservation Centre, Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens, which has seedbanking, nursery production and micropropagation facilities
In New South Wales:
- The National Seed Bank, Australian National Botanic Gardens, which has seedbanking, nursery production and micropropagation facilities
- The Australian Tree Seed Centre, CSIRO, which has seedbanking and nursery production facilities
- The Australian PlantBank, Australian Institute of Botanical Science, Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust, which has seedbanking, cryopreservation, nursery production and micropropagation facilities
In Queensland:
- The Brisbane Botanic Gardens Conservation Seed Bank, Brisbane Botanic Gardens, Mt Coot-tha, which has seedbanking and nursery production facilities

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Wild edible plants (WEP) are, for the most part, uncultivated and have one or more edible parts. These plants can be well-known in the area where they are found and used, but often, the knowledge of how to use them has been lost.

Despite the large number of WEP reported (> 7,000 species, Diazgranados et al., 2020), only 30 are currently part of our diet, with more than 50% of our calorie intake based on wheat, rice, maize and sugar consumption (FAO, 2020). These few dominant crops have been bred over millennia, drastically narrowing their genetic diversity in comparison to wild species. Crop wild relatives (CWRs) are species closely related to crops, that are used as a source of genetic diversity to improve conventional crops. According to Castañda-Álvarez et al., (2016), there are more than one thousand CWRs registered, of which only 150 have their conservation status assessed (IUCN). In many cases, CWRs exhibit tolerance and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses that can be transferred to crops via breeding techniques.

Many CWRs are threatened in the wild and need to be prioritised for ex situ collection to conserve their diversity. This is most pressing for endemic species, which may have unique genetic and phenotypic traits that could be lost if their habitat is vulnerable (e.g., to climate or land use change). Storing CWRs in seed or gene banks not only ensures their conservation but also makes material accessible for research into the traits that they possess.

Several collaborative projects between the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) and its partners have undertaken seed collection of WEP, gathering more than 3,000 WEP (>15,000 accessions, Fig. 1). Furthermore, the MSB Partnership (MSBP) has collected and conserved CWRs from at least 25 crops (mainly pulses, cereals and forages listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture) to investigate their characteristics and select key accessions for crop improvement purposes. Nearly 300 CWRs species (3767 accessions) were collected during 2010-2020 from 90 countries (Fig. 2).

Gradient heat map of the world to show areas where high and low numbers of populations of WEP accessions are conserved across the MSB — Figure 1: Distribution of wild edible plant accessions conserved *ex situ* at the MSB. The key shows the number of populations registered on a logarithmic scale. A text description for the map is available. (Image: RBG Kew).

Gradient heat map of the world to show areas where high and low numbers of populations of CWR accessions are conserved across the MSB — Figure 2: Distribution of CWR accessions conserved *ex situ* across the MSB, the magnified sections display UK and Israel as the top two countries with the most species conserved. The key shows the number of populations registered on a logarithmic scale. A text description for the map is available. (Image: RBG Kew.)

Despite the extraordinary work and extensive efforts of the institutions involved, WEP and CWRs continue to need urgent collection and conservation (Vincent et al., 2019, Maxted and Vincent, 2021). More than 50% of WEP and CWRs are still under-represented in genebanks and little knowledge is available for most of them. In response, a gap analysis was performed to identify key species that need to be prioritised for conservation, as well as regions or hotspots with a high number of WEP and CWRs not yet conserved across the MSBP. The objective is to ensure their long-term conservation, to increase the diversity and accessibility of collections.

Southeast Asia and Malesia, together with West and West-Central Tropical Africa were identified as the regions with the greatest number of WEP not yet conserved (Fig. 3). On the other hand, Southeast Asia and Latin America, more specifically Brazil, were identified as hotspots for CWRs that are not stored ex situ (Fig. 4). We recommend that the top five genera with missing collections for WEP (Elaeocarpus, Pinanga, Pandanus, Agave and Garcinia) and CWR (Artocarpus, Arachis, Solanum, Brassica and Prunus), together with other endemic taxa, should be targeted from the aforementioned regions, establishing new partnerships if needed, for conservation efforts. This will help secure the genetic diversity held in these species for current and future generations.

Gradient heat map of the world showing areas with high numbers of WEP populations not conserved. Described within article. — Figure 3: Distribution of wild edible plant occurances with no record of being conserved *ex situ*. The key shows the number of populations documented. The image is described in the text. (Image: RBG Kew).

Gradient heat map of the world showing areas with high numbers of CWR populations not conserved. Described within article. — Figure 4: Distribution of CWRs registered with no record of being conserved *ex situ*. The key shows the number of populations documented. The image is described in the text. (Image: RBG Kew).

References

Castañeda-Álvarez, N.P., Khoury, C.K., Achicanoy, H.A., Bernau, V., Dempewolf, H., Eastwood, R.J., Guarino, L., Harker, R.H., Jarvis, A., Maxted, N., Müller, J.V., Ramirez-Villegas, J., Sosa, C.C., Struik, P.C., Vincent, H. & Toll, J. (2016) Global conservation priorities for crop wild relatives. Nature plants. 2(4): 1-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2016.22
Diazgranados, M., Allkin, B., Black, N., Cámara-Leret, R., Canteiro, C., Carretero, J., Eastwood, R., Hargreaves, S., Hudson, A., Milliken, W., Nesbit, M., Ondo, I., Patmore, K., Pironon, S., Turner, R. & Ulian, T. (2020) World checklist of useful plant species. RBG Kew. DOI: https://knb.ecoinformatics.org/view/doi:10.5063/F1CV4G34
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2020) FAOSTAT Statistical Database. Rome: FAO. (accessed May 2022)
Genesys (2022). Data accessed through Genesys Global Portal on Plant Genetic Resources, www.genesys-pgr.org, (accessed Jan 2022).
Maxted, N., & Vincent, H. (2021) Review of congruence between global crop wild relative hotspots and centres of crop origin/diversity. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 68(4): 1283-1297. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-021-01114-7
Seed Bank Database, SBD, (2021)(accessed Jan 2022)
POWO (2022) Plants of the World Online. Available at: https://powo.science.kew.org/ (accessed September 2021)
Vincent, H., Amri, A., Castañeda-Álvarez, N. P., Dempewolf, H., Dulloo, E., Guarino, L., Hole, D., Mba, C., Toledo, A. & Maxted, N. (2019). Modeling of crop wild relative species identifies areas globally for in situ conservation. Communications Biology. 2(1): 1-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-019-0372-z

**Text description for Figure 1: Distribution of wild edible plant accessions conserved ex situ at the MSB.**

A world map highlighting high numbers of wild edible plant population accessions held at the MSB from the United States, Mexico, Mali, Burkina Faso, Sudan, Tanzania, Botswana, South Africa, Madagascar, Italy, UK, China and Australia.

Return to Figure 1

**Text description for Figure 2: Distribution of CWR accessions conserved ex situ across the MSB.**

A world map highlighting high numbers of crop wild relative plant population accessions held at the MSB from the United States, Mexico, Ecuador, Chile, Ghana, Nigeria, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, UK, Spain, Italy, Israel, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Pakistan and Vietnam.

Return to Figure 2

Daucosma laciniata Engelm. & A.Gray, also known as Meadow Parasol or Meadow Daucosma, is a herb native to Texas and New Mexico in the United States (Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, 2022; USDA, NRCS, 2022). It was first described to science in the Boston Journal of Natural History (volume 6, pg. 211) by Asa Gray in the article “An account of a collection of plants made by F. Lindheimer in the western part of Texas, in the years 1845-6, and 1847-8, with Critical Remarks, Descriptions of New Species” (IPNI, 2022). Digitised versions of the herbarium sheets from this collection are available through the Harvard University herbaria and RBG Kew herbaria.

Daucosma is a genus within the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) family, with Daucosma laciniata being the only species of the genus (WCVP, 2022), making it taxonomically distinct. The species has had its genome sequenced as part of the Plant and Fungal Tree of Life (PAFTOL) project (available at: https://treeoflife.kew.org/specimen-viewer/10171).

Daucosma laciniata growing infront of a rock. The plant is in flower, showing the white flowers of the umbel. — *Daucosma laciniata*. (Photo: Bill Carr, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center).

The species is an annual, flowering between June and July with white umbellifer flowers (Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, 2022). Its current conservation status is G4 - Apparently Secure (NatureServe, 2022a), which means the species is at fairly low risk of extinction (NatureServe, 2022b).

One collection of the species is held at the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB), donated by the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center in 2005. Since 2006 various germination tests have been performed on the collection without achieving significant germination. However, cut-tests at the end of these experiments revealed that the seeds were still alive, indicating that the perfect dormancy breaking conditions for the species remained elusive, rather than the collection being inviable . In 2019, Kirstine (Germination Assistant at the MSB) set up various tests based on a combination of the best conditions from previous germination test results and WORLDCLIM average monthly temperatures for the area the collection was made. Fast forward 504 days (72 weeks!) and one of the tests reached 92% germination (100% viability after accounting for empty and viable ungerminated seeds). The germination conditions consisted of 4 steps:

Firstly, 8 weeks cycling at 20°C for 12 hours, then 10°C for 12 hours with 12 hours of light each day.
Secondly, 16 weeks at 5°C with 12 hours of light a day.
Thirdly, 14 weeks cycling again at 20°C for 12 hours and then 10°C for 12 hours with 12 hours light a day.
And finally, 34 weeks cycling at 35°C for 12 hours and 20°C for 12 hours with 12 hours light a day.

This germination protocol still needs to be refined, although this will probably take another year and a half! However, it does show that the seeds are viable, and we have been able to break the dormancy of this particular collection which will allow for the propagation of the plants from seed in the future.

References

Gray, A. (1850). An account of a collection of plants made by F. Lindheimer in the western part of Texas, in the years 1845-6, and 1847-8, with Critical Remarks, Descriptions of New Species. Boston Journal of Natural History. 6:211. Available online from the Biodiversity Heritage Library website
IPNI (2022). Daucosma laciniatahttps://www.ipni.org/n/76978-2
Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Centre (2022) Daucosma laciniata. Plant Database. https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=DALA5
NatureServe (2022a) https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.131658/Daucosma_laciniata
NatureServe (2022b) https://explorer.natureserve.org/AboutTheData/Statuses#Global
USDA, NRCS (2022) The PLANTS Database 06/10/2022
WCVP (2022) Daucosma https://wcvp.science.kew.org/taxon/30185563-2

This month we spoke with Naomi Carvey, Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) Data Warehouse Project Officer at the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB). Naomi has one of the most wide-reaching roles within the Seed Conservation team at the MSB and will have been in contact with many of you. So we thought we’d take the opportunity to introduce the person behind the email address!

Naomi out collecting as part of the UK National Tree Seed Project. (Photo: Naomi Carvey).

Naomi stood smiling holding a pole pruner and a bucket, wearing a hard hat on a misty hill top. — Naomi kitted out for seed collecting as part of the UK National Tree Seed Project. (Photo: RBG Kew).

What did you do before joining the MSB?

I’ve always had data and systems type roles in my career prior to joining Kew, but in very different industries. My first full-time job after leaving University was pricing flights and holidays for a big travel company, after that I started working in banking in the City of London, including working for several years at the Bank of England – the UK central bank. Before that, whilst I was still in full-time education I spent several years milking cows and helping with wedding catering during weekends and holidays – something quite different!

Why did you join the MSB and what interested you about the role?

While still working in banking and studying GIS I became interested in environmental datasets and applications. I heard about the new MSBP Data Warehouse project first, and through that rather stumbled across the wider work of the MSBP. I thought it sounded like a really interesting and dynamic place to work, and the role seemed to suit my experience and interests well.

What is your current role and what does a typical day look like for you?

I’ve been the MSBP Data Warehouse Project Officer for several years now, helping to gather, improve and secure data from seed collections across the MSB partnership, and to get the data back into the MSBP community. A typical day might involve checking and feeding back on a dataset from an MSB partner, and then uploading those data to the MSBP Data Warehouse online. I might also be updating IUCN red list data or species names, helping colleagues with data analysis or delivering data training.

Can you tell us about something you are proud to have achieved in your role?

Recently I have worked on the design and implementation of processes that allow us to receive herbarium vouchers from MSB partners who do not duplicate their seed collections at the MSB, but share full collection and curation data instead. I have found this work to be very enjoyable and rewarding. Duplicating herbarium vouchers at RBG Kew for seed collections stored elsewhere throughout the partnership really opens up fantastic possibilities for research and collaboration, as well as elevating seed collections to the highest quality standards, maximising collection utility and longevity.

What are some of the challenges you have faced, or think you might face in the future?

Increasingly I feel there is a gap between the fantastic wealth of seed collections, their associated data and new research done around the world, and getting those seeds and their associated knowledge back into living ecosystems. There is some amazing work being done across the MSBP in restoration and on new techniques in habitat management but currently issues around seed supply, a lack of germination / cultivation protocols and the difficulties transporting germplasm across borders are holding this work back. I think plant conservation should be a cycle of gathering collections and knowledge and putting them to practical use, but there are some bottlenecks at the moment. I’d love to get more involved in work to help tackle some of these issues.

Can you tell us about a favourite moment from your work for the MSBP?

Meeting colleagues from other seedbanks across the MSBP is always a highlight – we work with such a fantastically diverse group of people, and it is always great to learn about associated projects, not to mention discovering more about plants! The annual Seed Conservation Techniques (SCT) course is always special and I’ve also been lucky enough to visit some MSB partners in-country. Each visit has been really beneficial, and I have life-long memories of them all. To highlight one, the SCT course held at Cibodas Botanic Gardens in Indonesia in 2017 – the course had a significant impact on the future direction of the collaboration and a large number of people were able to join the training, which was very well organised and held in such beautiful surroundings. Through Arcadia and the Global Tree Seed Bank programme, the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) - our MSB partner in Indonesia – is now working on collecting over 1000 species.

What advice would you give somebody regarding their data?

Concentrate on completing any mandatory fields first, and be prepared to invest a significant amount of time on your data at the beginning and during data collection – if you do a thorough job at the start you will save a lot of time and many headaches later on! You will also be able to maximise the longevity and potential future use of your collections. Don’t be afraid to ask for help from your colleagues at the MSB - we have a lot of varied experience and resources and we’re here to help.

If you could be one plant, what would you be and why?

I’d be a beautiful, craggy old Yew tree, Taxus baccata, a tree known for its cancer-fighting chemicals, toxicity and folkloric associations with death and resurrection which are sometimes thought of as portals to the underworld. In the UK ancient Yew trees are often found in churchyards and some pre-date the arrival of Christianity. I have fond memories of collecting T. baccata seeds for the UK National Tree Seed project - my first ever seed collecting trip for the MSB which was highly influential for me.

An old Yew tree growing on the top of a large rock, the roots of the tree are growing like a network over the rock — A *Taxus baccata* tree along the Rock Walk at Wakehurst. (Image: Jim Holden, RBG Kew).

How many seeds should I collect?

How many seeds to collect is a question of balance between making sure you can gather enough seeds for your intended use in the time you have available, while ensuring you do not harm the population from which you are sampling. In general, for a long-term conservation collection, you should aim to collect at least 10,000 potentially viable seeds, but not taking more than 20% of the available mature seed. Population data should be used to guide when more cautious collecting might be necessary, e.g., when making a collection from annual species that produce few seeds. The recommendation to collect 10,000 potentially viable seeds is based on the seed use figures in Table 1, which were calculated from collections of abundant species held at Kew, and is a starting point that can be adjusted for specific projects or collection events. You should also keep in mind the importance of maximising the genetic diversity captured, by collecting randomly from as many individuals (maternal lines) as possible.

**Table 1**: Indicative breakdown of seed numbers for different uses from a single collection (adapted from: MSBP Technical Information Sheet 02, RBG Kew).
Activity	Indicative Seeds Required
Base collection kept in case of loss of wild population	Ideally 500 seeds
Developing an effective germination protocol	100 seeds
Viability monitoring over the anticipated 200-year life span of the collection	650 seeds
Duplication at another bank for safety	At least 1,150 seeds
Distribution to users	5,000 seeds (sufficient for 100 researchers to receive a 50 seed sample)
Future propagation and restoration projects	At least 2,500 seeds for trialling
Total	9,900 seeds

The recommendation to collect 10,000 seeds might need to be adapted depending on the quality of the seed you are collecting. You will need to undertake a cut-test to verify the quality of seed from your sample population. Usually you need to cut-test ten seeds. If two of those ten are empty (20%), you can assume that 20% of the seeds you collect will be empty, therefore to collect 10,000 potentially viable seeds you would need to collect 12,000 seeds (10,000 x 1.2). You will then need to calculate again whether it is possible to collect this quantity while still ensuring you are taking no more than 20% of the available mature seed.

A fruit cut in half lying on the forest floor. The two of the seeds look healthy, the other two look like they are potentially inviable. — Cut-testing fruit in the field. (Photo: W. Stuppy).

In the case of rare and threatened species, what is the minimum sized collection that is useful for a seed bank? There is no absolute threshold but ideally you should aim for a collection of 500 seeds. However, this will not always be possible and it is important to consider other factors, for example:

does the safe-collecting limit need to be lower?
how many seeds are available?
what are the intended end uses of the seed?

In cases where it is not possible to collect sufficient seed in a single visit, repeating collections over multiple years may be an alternative option.

This text was adapted from Technical Information Sheet 02 - Assessing populations, (RBG Kew, 2022).

Three people, each holding a paper bag, collecting dandelion heads in seeds. — Seed collecting in the field. (Photo: Hanna Oldfield).

Recent publications from across the MSBP:

Carta, A., Fernández-Pascual, E., Gioria, M., Müller, J.V., Rivière, S., Rosbakh, S., Saatkamp A., Vandelook F. & Mattana, E. (2022) Climate shapes the seed germination niche of temperate flowering plants: a meta-analysis of European seed conservation data. Annals of Botany. mcac037. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcac037
Carta, A., Mattana, E., Dickie, J. & Vandelook, F. (2022) Correlated evolution of seed mass and genome size varies among life forms in flower plants. Seed Science Research. 32: 46-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0960258522000071
Hay, F.R., Davies, R.M., Dickie, J.B., Merritt, D.J. & Wolkis, D.M. (2022) More on seed longevity phenotyping. Seed Science Research. 1-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960258522000034
Hardstaff, L.K., Sommerville, K.D., Funnekotter, B., Bunn, E., Offord, C.A. & Mancera, R.L. (2022) Myrtaceae in Australia: Use of Cryobiotechnologies for the Conservation of a Significant Plant Family under Threat. Plants. 11(8): 1017. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11081017
Pirie, M.D., Blackhall-Miles, R., Bourke, G., Crowley, D., Ebrahim, I., Forest, F., Knaack, M., Koopman, R., Lansdowne, A., Nürk, N., Osborne, J., Pearce, T.R., Rohrauer, D., Smit, M. & Wilman, V. (2022) Preventing species extinctions: A global conservation consortium for Erica. Plants, People, Planet. First view. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10266
Rodríguez-Zúñiga, J., Flores-Ortiz, C.M., González-Guillén, M.d.J., Lira-Saade, R., Rodríguez-Arévalo, N.I., Dávila-Aranda, P.D. & Ulian, T. (2022) Cost analysis of seed conservation of commercial pine species vulnerable to climate change in Mexico. Forests. 13: 539. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/f13040539
Tiloca, G., Brundu, G. & Ballesteros, D. (2022) Bryophyte spores tolerate high desiccation levels and exposure to cryogenic temperatures but contain storage lipids and chlorophyll: understanding the essential traits needed for the creation of Bryophyte spore banks. Plants. 11:1262. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11091262

MSBP Technical Information Sheet Update

The Technical Information Sheets available on the Resources page of the MSBP website have recently been updated and republished. The Technical Information Sheets cover various aspects of seed conservation practices and facilities for example:

As part of these updates all the pdf's have been made web accessible. If you have any issues using the Technical Information Sheets, please contact samara@kew.org .

Issue 2: March 2022

This issue we hear about field, lab and training activities from Mozambique, Australia and Indonesia. We interview Victoria Wilman, Seed Conservation Programme Manager at SANBI (South African National Biodiversity Institute) and this month's species profile comes from Indonesia - the Begonias native to the Mount Slamet region. We also check back in with the Seeds of Hope featured in the news section of the December issue of Samara.

A germinated seedling of I. dunensis, the seed standing above the sand on a cream hypocotyl and stem and cotyledons emerging from the top of the seed — *Icuria dunensis* seedling, Mozambique. Photo: Cacilda João Chirinzane Manhiça.

Flowering spike of Calochilus paludosus with two buds and one green and red flower showing the characteristic red hairs — *Calochilus paludosus*, Australia. Photo: Dan Duval.

Two flowers each with six white petals with a purple streak at the centre of the flower — *Aristea spiralis*, South Africa. Photo: Victoria Wilman.

Two female flowers each with three white tepals, lobed yellow stigmas and a light pink, 3-winged ovary — *Begonia muricata*, Indonesia. Photo: M Efendi.

Nationally endemic plants are very important in conservation planning as their survival depends on only one country. Icuria dunensis (Fabaceae) is not only an endemic species to Mozambique, but also one of Mozambique’s five endemic genera (Darbyshire et. al., 2019a). It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of threatened species (Darbyshire et. al., 2019b) and its distribution is limited to a stretch of about 200 km along the Mozambican coast between Nacala (Nampula province) and Moebase (Zambezia province).

Icuria trees can grow to 40 m tall. They are dominant in patches of dry coastal forest, sometimes forming pure stands (Burrows et. al., 2018). The fruits are velvety woody pods about 10 cm long, with only 1-3 large seeds inside.

Importance of the tree for communities

Icuria trees are valued by local communities. For example, in the Mulimone Icuria forest in Nampula province, trees are debarked for canoe making (Fig. 1) and the wood is used for construction and firewood. However, trees are also killed by ring-barking a section of the trunk to clear the land for agriculture (Fig. 1). In addition, clearance of vegetation during the mineral sand mining occurring in this region, threatens the remaining patches of these Icuria forests.

A branched tree trunk with a long section lighter in colour where the bark has been removed — Figure 1: Local communities debark long sections of *Icuria* trunk to make canoes, killing large branches (left) and ring-bark a narrow strip of the trunk to kill the tree during land clearance for agriculture. The *Icuria* tree releases a red sap (right). Photos from Mulimone *Icuria* forest in Nampula Province. (Photos: Cacilda João Chirinzane Manhiça).

The base of a tree trunk, red in colour with streaks of red sap running down it. There is a wide indentation where a strip of bark has been removed around the trunk — Figure 1: Local communities debark long sections of *Icuria* trunk to make canoes, killing large branches (left) and ring-bark a narrow strip of the trunk to kill the tree during land clearance for agriculture. The *Icuria* tree releases a red sap (right). Photos from Mulimone *Icuria* forest in Nampula Province. (Photos: Cacilda João Chirinzane Manhiça).

**Orthodox or Recalcitrant Icuria dunensis seeds?**

In its habitat we noticed many Icuria trees completely without, or with very low numbers of, mature fruits. In order to guarantee enough quality seeds of Icuria for restoration purposes there is an urgent need for ex situ conservation by seed banking. Very little is known about the seeds of this species. They are large and fleshy with a thin seed coat, which suggests they may be recalcitrant.

Preliminary seed tests were conducted using seeds collected by Kenmare in Nampula Province, Larde district, in January 2019. The tests were carried out at the IIAM-CIF laboratory (Fig. 2). To determine the seed moisture content, fresh seeds were cut into small pieces using secateurs and divided into two samples of 10 grams. The samples were dried in the oven at 130°C for an hour. The fresh seed weight was about 87 seeds/kg, with a moisture content of 34.5% (IIAM-CIF, 2020).

A pile of round disc like seeds on a laboratory table, Zélia, Milton and Horácia are stood around the table holding secateurs — Figure 2: Preparing *I. dunensis* seeds for laboratory tests: IIAM staff from left to right: Zélia Malate, Milton Zavale and Horácia Boene. (Photo: Cacilda João Chirinzane Manhiça).

Germination room

124 seeds of I. dunensis were sown in sterilised sand in the germination room, with a temperature between 25-30°C, 24 hours photoperiod and air relative humidity between 60-80%. The seeds started germinating between day 3 and day 21. The germination was epigeal, with the cotyledons forcing above the surface of the germination medium as the seedlings grew (Fig. 3).

The 91% germination result was very encouraging and exceeded our expectations. However, this was just the start of our Icuria seed conservation research. Further tests are required to check if the seeds are indeed sensitive to desiccation, and to determine how germination responds to drying (Gold and Hay 2014).

Round seeds protruding a couple of centimeters above a tray of sand — Figure 3: *Icuria dunensis* seeds germinating in sterilized sand, showing epigeal germination. (Photo: Cacilda João Chirinzane Manhiça).

Production of seedlings

The seedlings were pricked out, transplanted into polyethylene pots and placed in the nursery under shade. Five months later, the seedling survival rate was 100% and the seedlings reached 30-40 cm tall (Fig. 4). This is encouraging as it shows that if fresh seeds are available, it may be easy to produce seedlings for restoration and ex situ conservation.

6 rows of Icuria dunensis saplings, each sapling in an individual round planter — Figure 4: *Icuria dunensis* seedlings, 30-40cm tall in the IIAM-CIF nursery, July 2019. (Photo: Cacilda João Chirinzane Manhiça).

Next steps

Test if the seeds are desiccation-sensitive using the seed coat ratio model and seed storage behaviour protocols (Gold and Hay 2014);
Send duplicate seeds to the MSB for further seed testing including germination testing after banking;
Reinforce/strengthen the in situ conservation and restoration programme for Icuria in partnership with Kenmare and other potential partners.

This work was carried out under the MoU between IIAM-Kenmare to restore Icuria dunensis and implement in situ conservation initiatives. To be able to continue our Icuria seed research we appreciate the support of the Global Tree Seed Bank and Threatened Biodiversity Hotspots programmes that are funding Mozambique’s National Seed Conservation Programme at IIAM.

References

Burrows, J.E., Burrows, S.M., Lötter, M.C. & Schmidt, E. (2018) Trees and shrubs Mozambique. Publishing Print Matters (Pty) Ltd, Noordhoek, Cape Town.
Darbyshire, I., Timberlake, J., Osborne, J., Rokni, S.; Matimele, H., Langa, C., Datizua, C., de Sousa, C., Alves, T., Massingue, A., Hadj-Hammou, J., Dhanda, S.; Shah, T. & Wursten, B. (2019a) The endemic plants of Mozambique: diversity and conservation status. Phytokeys. 136: 45-96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.136.39020
Darbyshire, I., Massingue, A.O., Osborne, J., De Sousa, C., Matimele, H.A., Alves, M.T., Burrows, J.E., Chelene, I., Datizua, C., Fijamo, V., Langa, C., Massunde, J., Mucaleque, P.A., Rokni, S. & Sitoe, P. (2019b) Icuria dunensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T136532836A136538183. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T136532836A136538183.en (Accessed on 02 February 2022)
Gold, K. & Hay, F. (2014) Identifying desiccation-sensitive seeds. Technical Information Sheet 10. Millennium Seed Bank Partnership. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. PDF: https://brahmsonline.kew.org/Content/Projects/msbp/resources/Training/10-Desiccation-tolerance.pdf
IIAM-CIF (2020, Report). Relatório sobre testes de qualidade de sementes de Icuria dunensis fornecida pela Kenmare-REHAB.

The work of the Australian Seed Bank Partnership (ASBP) is built on collaboration. Our relationship with Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) has been instrumental to our success in building capacity to deliver seed banking projects over the past 20 years. Following the devastating 2019–20 Australian bushfires, the MSBP reached out once more to help us secure our threatened flora. Thanks to a very generous offer of support from the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) in February 2020, we have been able to undertake an emergency collecting programme in impacted areas during the first season post-fire.

Target species for this programme were selected based on the severity of bushfire impact, their threatened status, and their potential to provide critical ecosystem services that support Australia’s native wildlife. Our partners made 47 collections of 42 taxa and delivered 164 germination trials of 93 taxa, representing flora from every Australian state and territory. On Kangaroo Island, two rare orchids (pictured) were located and banked by the South Australian Seed Conservation Centre. The funding provided for this programme has also enabled us to propagate 10 priority plants in Western Australia, Victoria and South Australia for planting in seed production areas and botanic garden displays.

Yellow orchid flower of Caladenia transitoria subspecies isolata — The shy gremlin orchid (*Caladenia transitoria* subsp. *isolata*) was previously only known from a single historic record, but in spring 2020 two small populations were discovered after fire. (Photo: Dan Duval).

To date, ASBP partners have also undertaken rapid flora assessments for 11 bushfire affected flora to ascertain habitat condition, initial fire response, species abundance, pests and disease presence and overall fire impact. To ensure standardised data collection across multiple states, our partners developed a methodology for species monitoring. This programme funded the printing of dedicated field books to capture this information. The assessments have provided seed banks with crucial information about species recovery post-fire. The data will be uploaded to botanic gardens databases and made available to those involved in research, conservation, and bushfire recovery actions to monitor recovery over time and inform future seed collection priorities.

Despite unforeseen project delays due to COVID restrictions, flooding, and impacts of the current La Niña event, the Partnership has adapted to ensure an ongoing commitment to ex situ conservation of Australian flora. This includes adjusting our species target lists to collect other accessible priority species, postponing our activities to the 2021–22 summer season, and establishing seed orchards from previous collections where species cannot be feasibly located.

The work our partners have delivered under this project, and many like it, mean thousands of native species are now secured in seed banks throughout Australia. We hope our efforts and the ongoing interest from beyond our shores will inspire people to learn more about protecting our native plants in our vast and varied continent.

The Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) has received the World Wide Biodiversity Conservation Award at the 16^th BBVA Foundation Awards ceremony in Madrid, 30^th November 2021. Each year the BBVA Foundation, the corporate social responsibility arm of the BBVA financial services group, hosts an award ceremony recognising those working for Biodiversity Conservation. Three awards are given, one for biodiversity conservation in Spain, one for knowledge dissemination and communication in biodiversity conservation in Spain, and one for worldwide biodiversity conservation.

It is this global category that the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) has won “for its extraordinary contribution to the preservation of the world’s plant biodiversity, through the creation of a seed bank holding 2.5 billion samples of plants from 190 countries”. The judges considered the MSBP to be an exemplary initiative which reflects how cooperation without borders can advance nature conservation worldwide and successfully address the central challenge of preserving biodiversity. They were particularly impressed by the MSBP's training capacity, a key element of the partnership which allows best practice, technology and ideas to be shared across the network.

Dr Elinor Breman, lead of the MSBP Initiative at Kew, travelled to Madrid to accept the award, with colleagues Dr Aisyah Faruk who coordinates our work across Europe, and Dr Tiziana Ulian, who works on diversity and livelihoods.

A person standing on a stage making a presentation to an audience — Dr Elinor Breman, Senior Research Leader at the Millennium Seed Bank, addresses the audience at the 16^th BBVA Foundation Awards ceremony in Madrid on the 30^th November 2021. (Photo: RBG Kew).

The award also provided 250,000 Euros to further the work of the MSBP. In the spirit in which the award was given, this funding is being used to continue our training programme and conserve critically endangered plants, bringing them back from the brink of extinction.

The funding will enable 10 people to undertake Technical Attachments at the Millennium Seed Bank and ~12 people to attend our flagship Seed Conservation Techniques course in 2022. The remaining funds will support a new four-year project to conserve 50 plant species designated as critically endangered (CR) by the global IUCN Red List.

Mind the Gap - What CR species are conserved?

The species to be conserved have been identified through an internal review of MSBP holdings of CR species, which identified CR species missing from collections as well as those whose collections could be improved (increase in the number of seeds from a population or the number of populations conserved). Ten countries will be involved in not only collecting these CR species, but drawing together the known information about them, developing propagation protocols and then feeding information and plants back into in situ conservation efforts.

The award engraved with the text Biodiversity Conservation Awards, BBVA Foundation Worldwide Award for Biodiversity Conservation, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Madrid, November 30 2021 — BBVA Foundation Worldwide Award for Biodiversity Conservation. (Photo: RBG Kew).

The transfer of seed conservation knowledge through the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) over the last two decades has been reviewed by Way & Breman (2021). They show how the MSBP’s international training programme has successfully translated research knowledge into practical standards and guidelines. They also illustrate how the MSBP continues to develop decision-support tools such as the Seed Recalcitrance Predictor and the MSBP Data Warehouse and shares best practice in seed conservation through technical publications and partnership newsletters.

For 2022 we are hoping to run our Seed Conservation Techniques training course onsite at the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) for the first time since 2018. The proposed dates include a week of online theory from September 26^th- 30^th, followed by practical hands-on sessions from October 9^th - 22^nd. Demand is likely to be high, so if you would like further information please contact MSBTraining@kew.org as soon as possible. The deadline for expressions of interest is April 30^th.

A group of people wearing lab coats and gloves stood around a sink washing fruits in a sieve — Participants of the Seed Conservation Techniques Course, 2018, cleaning wet fruit in the MSB cleaning lab. (Photo: RBG Kew).

References

Way, M. & Breman, E. (2021) Technology transfer within the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership. Pdf available at: https://seedconservationsg.org/s/SCSG-Newsletter-2021-October.pdf

In the December edition of Samara, we featured a news story on receiving seeds from the hibaku jumoku (survivor trees) from the Green Legacy Hiroshima Initiative. The trees survived the atomic bomb dropped on the city of Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945, at the end of the Second World War and are now grown around the world as a symbol of peace and hope.

Many of the species we received from the Hiroshima survivor trees need cold stratification treatment and are still in the fridge. Some however, needed no pre-treatments. They were sown straight away and put into our glasshouse at a cosy 22°C.

The Cinnamomum camphora (Camphor Tree) seeds were first to the mark, with all three germinating (the first germinating after 4 weeks). They will soon be potted into airpots and as they grow (and toughen up), acclimatised to cooler conditions. I look forward to the day when these survivors will be planted out in the gardens at Wakehurst!

In the foreground three seedlings growing in a container filled with soil, with other plants in pots in the background — Three seedlings of *Cinnamomum camphora* from the Green Legacy Hiroshima Initiative, successfully germinated in the nursery at Wakehurst. (Photo: Eliana Van Der Schraft).

Notes on the Begonias of Mt. Slamet, Central Java, Indonesia

Muhammad Efendi, Abidin Ibrahim, Dadang Sunandar, Intani Quarta Lailaty & Vandra Kurniawan (Cibodas Botanic Gardens, Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanic Gardens, National Research and Innovation Agency)

Begonia is known as an ornamental plant by many plant enthusiasts. It has an interesting shape and colour to the leaves, and also has many varied colours of flowers (Tebitt, 2005). Several species of Begonia have other uses, for example B. comestibilis is used for food (Thomas et al., 2011), B. multangula as a spice, B. muricata (Hartutiningsih et al., 2009; Putri et al., 2019), B. medicinalis (Ardi et al., 2019) and B. baliensis (Hartutiningsih et al., 2018) were reported as potential medicines. These species contain antimicrobial compounds with the potential to be developed as medicinal raw materials.

Mount Slamet is known as habitat of native Begonia’s in Java. A total of five native Begonia have been reported in this area in a previous study (Efendi, 2019). A seed collecting expedition was conducted in the Mount Slamet forest area, Central Java, Indonesia, to increase the number of Begonia seed collections which are stored in the Cibodas Botanic Garden’s Seed Bank. A total of six species of native Begonia were found and collected within the South Slope area of Mount Slamet, namely B. multangula, B. longifolia, B. areolata, B. atricha, B. isoptera and B. muricata. A new location of Begonia isoptera was added to its range distribution from this expedition. Thus, as many as 40% of Java's native species of Begonias are now stored in Cibodas Botanic Garden’s Seed Bank and duplicated at the Seed Bank of the Center for Plant Conservation and Botanic Gardens. Unfortunately, there is a decreasing trend of the B. atricha population in Mt. Slamet caused by over exploitation for ornamental plants.

Two leaves with lobed margins and pointed lobe tips

Begonia multangula. (Photo: M. Efendi).

Underside of stem showing the alternate leaf arrangement and asymmetrical leaf base, white buds are hanging from the leaf axils

Begonia longifolia. (Photo: M. Efendi).

Begonia muricata. (Photo: M. Efendi).

Orange-red, pubescent flower buds at the stem apex

Begonia areolata. (Photo: M. Efendi).

Two dark green asymmetrical leaves with serrate margins

Begonia atricha. (Photo: M. Efendi).

A stem with leaves in an alternate arrangement, a pale green developing fruit and inflorescences of pinky cream male flowers coming from the leaf axils

Begonia isoptera. (Photo: M. Efendi).

References

Ardi, W.H., Zubair, M.S., Ramadanil, P. & Thomas, D.C. (2019) Begonia medicinalis (Begoniaceae), a new species from Sulawesi Indonesia. Phytotaxa. 423(1): 41-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.423.1.5
Efendi, M. (2019) Begonia alam Kebun Raya Baturaden. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Masyarakat Biodiversitas Indonesia. 5(1): 13-17. Available at: https://smujo.id/psnmbi/article/view/3216
Siregar, H-M., Purwantoro, R.S., Praptiwi, P. & Agusta, A. (2018) Antibacterial potency of simple fractions of ethyl acetate extract of Begonia baliensis. Nusantara Bioscience. 10: 159-163. Available at: https://smujo.id/nb/article/view/2726
Putri, N.H.S., Nurdiwiyati, D., Lestari, S., et al. (2019) Aktivitas antibakteri ekstrak tangkai dan daun Begonia multangula Blume. terhadap Porphyromonas gingivalis. Jurnal Biologi Universitas Andalas. 7(1): 51-58.
Thomas, D.C., Ardi, W.H. & Hughes, M. (2011) Nine new species of Begonia (Begoniaceae) from South and West Sulawesi, Indonesia. Edinburgh Journal of Botany. 68(2): 225–255. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960428611000072

Our collaboration with SANBI (The South African National Biodiversity Institute) was one of the first under the global Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP). In over 20 years of working together the MSBP/SANBI team have made more than 6,500 collections, covering more than 4,350 species.

We spoke to Victoria Wilman (Seed Conservation Programme Manager) to learn more about her team's incredible contribution and their hopes and plans.

Photo montage of the SANBI MSBP team — The SANBI MSBP team, left to right: Victoria Wilman, Fergy Nkadimeng, Sibahle Gumede, Ntsakisi Masia, Naomi Mdayi, Thembeka Malwane and Jacqui James. (Photo: MSBP SANBI).

What influenced you to work in seed conservation?

I used to spend hours hiking in the mountains and visiting South Africa’s National Parks. I loved plants and collected seeds wherever I could. When my grandmother passed away, she left me a small legacy, just enough to kick start my first year of studies. I wanted to do nature conservation, but knowing about the many rare and endangered plants, I decided to study horticulture, to be able to grow these plants to restore them back into the wild. After working in the Eastern Cape and completing my honours degree in Botany a few years later, I applied for a seed collecting position in Cape Town and started at SANBI in 2012. I have loved every minute of it!

How has the global pandemic influenced your work and personal life?

The pandemic stopped all of our fieldwork, and our teams collecting seeds around the country were grounded although some colleagues who live in remote areas continued to collect around their home villages. I have an amazing team, and despite all the Covid challenges, they continued to work extremely hard and remained dedicated to the MSBP project, with the result that we are not far behind our collecting targets.

How do you think SANBI has developed its commitment to Seed Conservation over the past 20 years?

SANBI's commitment to seed conservation is very strong, the seed room at Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens (NBG) has changed from a commercial operation to a Seed Conservation Unit servicing the whole of SANBI.

A Seed Conservation Programme is being developed which includes infrastructure for South Africa’s first wild plant seed bank at Kirstenbosch NBG, including dry rooms, a -20°C; freezer, germination and seed processing labs, all due to be completed in early 2023. This exciting project brings together a lifetime’s ambition for me.

The seed conservation programme is well integrated into SANBI’s other directives and many of SANBI’s permanent staff have come through the MSBP programme. Our seed collectors are stationed at four of SANBI’s Botanical Gardens and work together with horticulturists and curators. We work closely with the Threatened Species Programme and Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers (CREW) who manage volunteers monitoring threatened species, and we also train them in seed collecting for the project.

A map of South Africa highlighting the collecting areas covered by each of the MSBP teams, and their respective locations — Map showing the collecting areas of the MSBP teams. Detailed alternative text for this map is available at the bottom of the article. (Photo: Victoria Wilman).

You have a strong Seed Conservation team at SANBI. Can you tell us a bit about the current team of researchers, their strengths and aspirations?

The team is comprised of myself, four seed collectors, one seed processing coordinator with support staff and an intern. We are finalizing two new projects at Kirstenbosch and Karoo Desert NBG which will add 3 more to the team.

Seed Collectors:

Naomi Mdayi – Kirstenbosch NBG (Western Cape)
Sibahle Gumede – Kwelera NBG (Eastern Cape)
Fergy Nkadimeng – Pretoria NBG (Gauteng, Freestate, North West)
Ntsakisi Masia – Thohoyandou NBG (Limpopo, Mpumulanga)
Jacqui James – Intern Kirstenbosch
New Project - Karoo Desert NBG (Northern Cape), succulent poaching
New Project – Kirstenbosch NBG, Restoration Unit, succulent poaching

Seed Processing at Kirstenbosch NBG:

Thembeka Malwane – seed processing coordinator
Georgina Wilkinson – seed cleaning and packaging shipments
Deon Smith – Administration (requests for material and other Gardens work)
Siyabonga Magladla – seed cleaning
Patrick Kettledas – seed cleaning and collecting

Due to the vast and varied terrain of South Africa the scope of our work is immense. The seed collectors (all female) spend extended periods away and are always accompanied in the field for their security. They are dedicated and knowledgeable. Amongst their many talents they also train students and volunteers, as well as coordinate the field trips.

Sibahle Gumede, from Kwelera NBG in the Eastern Cape shared her thoughts:

My aspirations are to see a South Africa that no longer has plants which are threatened, to have independent volunteers to carry out the MSBP vision, and universities, landowners and environmental stakeholders taking ownership for seed conservation. And lastly to see satellite seed banks for each province, to be able to curate their endemic seeds.

Your team engages with volunteers across South Africa, what are the key factors that make these partnerships work and are there any challenges?

Most of our stakeholders, partners, and volunteers understand and have experience of the effects of not preserving indigenous species. Our partnership with them is symbiotic and mutual and we are extremely grateful for all the help we receive from volunteers who help find target species and even collect seeds. We occasionally have difficulties getting hold of landowners for site access and they may prohibit us from collecting, and we can sometimes be viewed as a threat that exploits vegetation to give away seeds to another country, but we work hard at spreading the conservation message and more often than not receive cooperation and enthusiastic assistance.

You alone have been involved with 500 of the collections made by the MSBP/SANBI team. Do you have any collection highlights?

One of my favourite experiences is collecting from Silvermine Nature Reserve after a huge fire in 2015, which many viewed as devastating. We knew it was just the beginning of another cycle in nature and we discovered many species which were previously not present and some that come up en masse after a fire, like the beautiful Aristea spiralis, Disa racemosa and Erica amoena.

Small woody shrub with whorls of green leaves and yellow daisy like flowers growing against a rocky background — *Euryops indecorus*. (Photo: Nick Helm).

Lots of green shoots and purple flowers emerging amongst burnt branches and bare ground — Life returning to the burned landscape at Silvermine Nature Reserve after the autumn rains. (Photo: Victoria Wilman).

Another great memory was collecting Euryops indecorus, a Critically Rare species known from only one site on cliff faces above Rooiels in the Western Cape. It took a whole day to get to and climb to the top of the mountain where this plant occurs and what a joyful and exciting feeling to find the species in flower and in seed, and to know that it is now secured in the seedbank.

**We know that SANBI is pivotal in driving in situ species conservation and recovery, are there any key initiatives for which your seed collections will be used?**

In partnership with MSBP, CREW, Kirstenbosch NBG and Stellenbosch Botanical Garden we are working on the Marasmodes undulata project. This species is classified as Critically Endangered and only occurs at a single locality. When last monitored, only three plants were present. The site has since burned, leaving no plants left in the wild. Seeds originally collected in 2005 were taken out of the seedbank and germinated at Kirstenbosch NBG and the Stellenbosch University BG. These plants are the basis for restoring this species, and these, and additional cuttings taken from them, will be planted into the wild this Autumn. It shows how important having ex situ collections can be.

How do you see the role SANBI plays in Southern Africa?

SANBI plays a critical role in the conservation arena, it leads and coordinates conservation research, and monitors and reports on the state of biodiversity in South Africa while also managing 10 Botanical Gardens that create awareness and showcase South Africa’s plants and provide education programs for learners. SANBI pilots wild plant seed conservation through our MSBP and seed conservation programme and highlights its importance through training programmes to many other organisations.

What do you see as the future challenges you are facing in your work?

Succulent poaching is a major problem, with plants exported for their ornamental value and the safety of my teams in the field is always a concern. Managing the new seed bank and developing a good seed science programme will be a new challenge, but a wonderful and exciting one.

You recently attended the remote Seed Conservation Techniques (SCT) course. How did you find it, and do you have any plans to further develop your current in-country training programme for staff and volunteers?

It was a great course; I really enjoyed it and learned so much. It was well organised with many resources. We are embarking on a staff training day every month, covering one aspect of the SCT training, and we will use the resources and videos from the course.

Detailed alternative text for map

A map of the provinces of South Africa showing the location of the different MSBP teams and the National Botanic Gardens (NBG) they’re based at, plus their respective collecting areas. The MSBP team based at Thohoyandou NBG in Limpopo cover collecting areas within the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga. The MSBP team based at Pretoria NBG in Gauteng province cover collecting areas within the provinces of Gauteng, North West and Free State. The MSBP team based at Kwelera NBG cover collecting areas within the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. There are two MSBP teams within the Western Cape, one at the Karoo Desert NBG and one at Kirstenbosch NBG, these cover collecting areas within the Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces.

How do you perform a cut test on very small seeds, especially when in the field?

There are two elements to handling small seeds. One is to make sure they stay in place and don’t fly away, the other is to use the right tool for cutting.

We suggest the use of adhesive tape, by taking a strip of the tape and creating a loop (with the adhesive side facing outwards to fix the seeds), and then using small scissors to cut the seeds (either on the tape surface or by cutting through the tape with seed in place) (Fig. 1). Experienced collectors may also use their fingernail for cutting. It is always helpful to use a hand lens or microscope when cut testing very small seeds. Very tiny seeds, such as those of orchids, can’t be effectively cut tested.

A loop of adhesive tape over a finger, with several small seeds stuck to the tape. A small pair of scissors are being used to cut the small seeds — Figure 1: Small seeds stuck to the outside of a loop of adhesive tape, small scissors can then be used to cut the tape. (Photo: RBG Kew).

Recent publications from across the MSBP:

Diantina, S., McGill, C., Millner, J., Nadarajan, J., Pritchard, H.W., Colville, L. & Clavijo McCormick, A. (2022) Seed viability and fatty acid profiles of five orchid species before and after ageing. Plant Biology. 24: 168-175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/plb.13345
Faruk, A., Papikyan, A. & Nersesyan, A. (2021) Exploring effective conservation of charismatic flora: orchids in Armenia as a case study. Diversity. 13(12): 624. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/d13120624
Liu, D., Cai, J., He, H., Yang, S., Chater, C.C.C. & Yu, F. (2022) Anemochore seeds harbour distinct fungal and bacterial abundance, composition, and functional profiles. Journal of Fungi. 8(1):89. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8010089
Kallow, S., Garcia Zuluaga, M., Fanega Sleziak, N., Nugraha, B., Mertens, A., Janssens, S.B., Gueco, L., Valle-Descalsota, M.L., Dang Vu, T., Toan Vu, D., Thi Li, L., Vadeloo, F., Dickie, J.B., Verboven, P., Swennen, R. & Panis, B. (2022) Drying banana seeds for ex situ conservation. Conservation Physiology. 10: coab099. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coab099
Pence, V.C., Meyer, A., Linsky, J., Gratzfeld, J., Pritchard, H.W., Westwood, M. & Bruns, E.B. (2022) Defining exceptional species - A conceptual framework to expand and advance ex situ conservation of plant diversity beyone conventional seed banking. Biological Conservation. 266: 109440. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109440
Pence, V.C., Bruns, E.B., Meyer, A., Pritchard, H.W., Westwood, M., Linsky, J., Gratzfeld, J., Helm-Wallace, S., Liu, U., Rivers, M. & Beech, E. (2022) Gap analysis of exceptional species - Using a global list of exceptional plants to expand strategic ex situ conservation action beyond conventional seed banking. Biological Conservation. 26: 109439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109439
Visscher, A.M., Boatfield, M., Klak, C., Yeo, M., Pearce, T.R., Wilman, V., Mdayi, N., Gumede, S. & Pritchard, H.W. (2022) Physiological seed dormancy of Ruschia imbricata and Ruschia uitenhagensis (Aizoaceae) is broken by dry heat and unaffected by seasonality. South African Journal of Botany. 147: 457-466. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.02.007

Important notice regarding the Seed Information Database

A recent assessment of the Seed Information Database (SID) for compliance with UK legislation on website accessibility (Public Sector Bodies [Websites and Mobile Applications] Accessibility Regulations 2018; themselves aligned with the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1 at the AA standard) found the web interface deficient in several respects. Regrettably, due to RBG Kew’s need to prioritise its limited resources, we will be unable to remedy the faults; and the SID web interface will be taken down at the end of this financial year (March 2022).

However, we will continue to update SID's data content internally; and this will continue to be available to external users soon as flat files from RBG Kew's FTP (file transfer portal) site.

Please also note that for many years we have shared much of SID's seed functional trait data via the TRY Plant Trait Database, which facilitates bulk data downloads; and we intend to continue periodic updates of that content.

In the future, as far as possible, we plan to deliver species' seed trait information via Kew's 'Plants of the World Online' portal, which should be convenient for users browsing or searching for data on individual species. Moreover, Kew's current Science Strategy sets out (pg. 27) an ambition to collaboratively deliver a 'Global Seed Information Facility'.

Kew launches two new MSc courses

As part of Kew's ambitious commitment to training the next generation of biodiversity scientists, we're expanding our postgraduate training offer with the launch of two new MSc courses. The MSc programmes offer the opportunity to study at Kew, with unrivalled access to our scientific collections, laboratory facilities, partnerships and landscapes.

Students can now choose between three MSc programmes at Kew in partnership with Queen Mary University of London or Royal Holloway, University of London:

Watch our short film: Study for an MSc at Kew

Further information on the MSc courses can be found:

Ten Golden Rules paper journals most downloaded in 2021

The paper "Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recovery and livelihood benefits", published in the journal Global Change Biology last year was the journals most downloaded paper of 2021. Millennium Seed Bank staff and partners played a significant role in drafting this paper, including Alice Di Sacco, Kate Hardwick and Elinor Breman from RBG Kew, and Stephen Elliott from the Forest Restoration Research Unit, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. In addition, the paper formed part of the evidence base for the 'Kew Declaration on Reforestation for Biodiversity, Carbon Capture and Livelihoods' which was signed by over 3,000 global experts and citizens.

Issue 1: September 2021

This issue we hear about field work activities in Australia, Mexico, Pakistan and South Africa; we interviewed Janet Terry who retired from the Millennium Seed Bank in July after more than 30 years and we outline the current plant health requirements for shipping plant material to the UK.

Clusters of orange flowers on tree branches — *Butea monosperma*, Pakistan. (Photo: Amir Sultan).

Two purple flower heads emerging from rocks — *Conophytum* spp., South Africa. (Photo: J.A.S. James).

Several purple flowers on a branch with opposite pinnate leaves — *Guaiacum coulterii*, Mexico. (Photo: Jesús Sánchez).

A row of orchid seedlings with corresponding identification tags ready for translocation — *Pterostylis psammophila*, Australia. (Photo: Dr Jenny Guerin).

Pakistan is rated as ‘comparatively’ forest-poor by the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations), with only 0.05 ha of forest per capita compared with a global average of 1.0 ha in 2019 (FAO, 2002). In addition, the severe impacts of a changing climate, the high rate of population growth (1.95%) and the subsequent pressure on land, together with a high demand for forest products, is placing additional strains on the country’s forest cover.

In rural areas, wood is an important commodity for fuel and timber, which is driving forest clearance at an alarming rate (90% of households are reliant on wood for fuel). And additional pressures exist due to severe overgrazing and the conversion of forests for agriculture.

IUCN conservation assessments show that many trees used for their medicinal properties in Pakistan are threatened with extinction, such as the Critically Endangered Commiphora wightii (Mukul myrrh tree), while Taxus wallichiana (Himalayan yew) and Rhamnella gilgitica are classified as Endangered and Vulnerable respectively. Much research still needs to be carried out on other species to lift them from the status of Data Deficient, such as Cercis griffithii (Afghan rebud), Malus chitralensis (Chitral crab apple) and Prunus bokharienis.

Dr Shakeel Ahmad Jatoi and Dr Amir Sultan filling out paper forms in the field — Dr. Shakeel Ahmad Jatoi, Principal Scientific Officer, Bio-Resources Conservation Institute, left, and Dr. Amir Sultan, Programme Leader, Principal Scientific Officer, National Herbarium of Pakistan, record herbarium specimen data during a seed collecting trip to Chitral in June 2021. (Photo: Syed Bilal Hussain Shah).

A two-year project funded by the Garfield Weston Foundation in collaboration with the Pakistan Bio-resources Conservation Institute (BCI) is aiming to collect the seeds of at least 70 rare, threatened and over-exploited useful tree and shrub species in Pakistan. This project (part of the Global Tree Seed Bank Programme) follows on from the successful partnership between RBG Kew and BCI in the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Pakistan Project – MAPs (2019) and the Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change (Crop Wild Relative - CWR) project (2016-2018). Project funding has purchased essential equipment needed to increase the capacity of BCI staff to conserve seed collections, such as a seed aspirator, an incubator-drier, a freezer, and tree seed collecting equipment. Additional funding secured from the Alan Lennox Boyd Memorial Trust was used to purchase reference books and herbarium supplies.

Despite delays to the project due to COVID-19, the team in Pakistan led by Dr. Sadar Uddin Siddiqui (Chief Scientific Officer/Curator of the National Genebank of Pakistan and Director of the Bio-resources Conservation Institute) has been able to collect seeds and herbarium specimens from plants belonging to 18 families, 29 genera and 31 species. Collections in the 2020/2021 season were made across a variety of habitat types and include rarities in Pakistan, such as Wrightia arborea (Woolly dyeing rosebay) from which the root, bark and leaves can be used in traditional medicine, as well as Butea monosperma (Flame of the forest) and the climate change-resilient, but underutilized, Sideroxylon mascatense. This plant is a small, but viciously spiny shrub, that produces a sweet edible purple fruit (a bit like a plum), which is believed to have the potential to be brought more widely into cultivation.

Hannan Majeed and Syed Bilal Hussain Shah using a pole pruner to collect seeds from the top of a tree — Hannan Majeed, right, and Syed Bilal Hussain Shah, collect seeds of *Flacourtia indica* in Shahdara, Islamabad Capital Territory, as part of the medicinal trees and shrubs project (Photo: Sadar Siddiqui).

Two orange flowers — Flowers of *Butea monosperma* (Flame of the forest). (Photo: Amir Sultan).

References

FAO (2002) An overview of forest products statistics in South and Southeast Asia. Eds. Ma, Q. & Broadhead, J.S.. EC-FAO Partnership Programme.

The Succulent Karoo biome stretches along the west coast of South Africa, spanning an area of approximately 111,000 km² between southern Namibia and the uplands of the Western Cape Province. It is home to 5000 vascular plant species, 40% of which are endemic. The world’s richest succulent flora occurs here. This diversity is remarkable for a region that receives 100 to 200 mm of rain annually (Mucina et al. 2006). In addition to this limited winter rainfall, the plants depend on the contributions of fog, dew and water vapour to meet their water requirements (Matimati et al. 2012).

Landscape photograph of rocky slopes and distant mountains with little vegetation — The Northern Cape landscape. (Photo: J.A.S. James).

In the past two years, an unprecedented upsurge in wild plant poaching from the Succulent Karoo and the adjacent Nama Karoo biomes has escalated the need for conservation in these regions. The partnership between RBG Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) and the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) has achieved over 7500 seed collections of native South African species to date. However, the species of the Succulent Karoo are relatively under-collected due to the high endemism of this biome and the remote locations of populations, which make accessibility for seed collections difficult. Thus, there are still many hundreds of rare and threatened plant species yet to be secured by seed banking.

The recent poaching increase is the result of a new interest in caudiciform and dwarf succulent species on foreign markets. Since mid-2019 there has been an increase in the number of poacher arrests and confiscation of wild plant material, which is brought to SANBI for identification, expert statements, and curation. In 2019 SANBI received on average 400 confiscated plants per week, which rose dramatically in 2021, to over 1500 plants per week. The genus Conophytum (Aizoaceae) has been especially targeted by poachers, while other confiscated genera include Anacampseros (Anacampserotaceae), Lithops (Aizoaceae) and Portulacaria (Portulacaceae). Many of these succulent species are already threatened and in some cases are critical habitat species, meaning that they only occur in an area less than 10 km². This is the case for 48 Conophytum species, which occur as single populations, often on one ridge of a single mountain. Rare populations such as these are easily driven to extinction through over harvesting and several Conophytum species may already be extinct as a direct result of recent poaching.

Poaching compounds the pressure on these species from climate change. Models based on the key climatic and geological variables that influence Conophytum distribution predict a severe contraction of suitable habitat for most of the genus, increasing their extinction risk (Young et al. 2016).

In efforts to save these species from extinction in the wild, MSB South Africa has joined with the Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers (CREW), a SANBI programme that surveys and documents plant taxa of conservation concern, providing data essential for updating the IUCN Red List. A new MSB Karoo biome extension project is also currently being developed to respond to this conservation crisis.

Group image of 9 people in front of a dry mountainous landscape — Team photo: Maria Kotze, Nomndeni Nkosi, Jacqui James, Ruby Davies, Pieter van Wyk, Leandra Knoetze, Volenti van der Westhuizen, Adam Harrower and Gavin Links. (Photo: A.D. Harrower).

There is now a race to bank the seeds before populations are decimated by poaching. Earlier this year MSB South Africa joined CREW on a field trip to assess and bank seeds of the species currently under the most poaching pressure. It was incredible to see the effort that goes into succulent poaching. To find them, the team had to scramble up steep rocky mountainsides under the blazing sun in the dry expanse of the Northern Cape, our vehicles becoming specks in the distance. The dry remains of succulents that had succumbed to the severe drought in recent years were scattered across the landscape, a reminder of the delicate balance of this region and the losses that may be brought about by climate change.

A succulent plant on cracked ground with several seed capsules. — Aizoaceae: *Cheiridopsis robusta*. (Photo: J.A.S. James).

Species of the genus Conophytum grow as single bodies (smaller than your thumb) or in small dense clusters that camouflage well with their rocky surroundings. They often grow tucked into rock crevices and (in some cases) are only present on impossible to reach cliff faces, which may indicate that the more accessible plants have already been poached. In two cases, poachers were at the sites only a few hours before us. It was a privilege to see these species in their natural habitats, but tragic to know that if the poaching continues, we might be some of the last. Yet, there is still hope for these species, in the seeds of 11 species collected on that trip and others that will soon be stored in the vaults of the Millennium Seed Bank, protecting these species for the future.

References

Matimati, I., Musil, C.F., Raitt, L. & February, E. (2012) Non rainfall moisture interception by dwarf succulents and their relative abundance in an inland arid South African ecosystem. Ecohydrology. 6: 818-825. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1304.
Mucina, L., Jürgens, N., Le Roux, A., Rutherford, M.C., Schmiedel, U., Esler, K., Powrie, L.W., Desmet, P.G. & Milton, S.J. (2006) Succulent Karoo Biome. In: Mucina, L., Rutherford, M.C. (Eds.) The Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. pp. 220-299.
Young, A.J., Guo, D., Desmet, P.G. & Midgley, G.F. (2016) Biodiversity and climate change: Risks to dwarf succulents in Southern Africa. Journal of Arid Environments. 129: 16-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.02.005.

Bridging the gap between the US Rocky Mountains and the Mexican Sierra Madre is a complex of 50 mountain ranges known as the Madrean ‘Sky islands’ Archipelago. With a diversity of habitats from desert shrubland to pine-oak woodlands, arranged across varied topography, the region is a priority for research and conservation, but botanical collections are under-represented from the Mexican territory (Deyo et al. 2013) and climate change is projected to erode and fragment the montane habitats (Yanahan & Moore 2018) before they have been fully studied.

Through the MSB Partnership, the Seed Bank of Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala Universidad Autónoma de Mexico (FES-I UNAM) and RBG Kew have cooperated since August 2018 with the Herbarium of the University of Sonora (USON), in the important effort to conserve the Sonoran flora through seed banking. The aim was to diversify the collections of the seed banks involved and support their research studies, by collecting at least 150 accessions of native species of interest. Using USON in Hermosillo as the main base, field work was concentrated in 17 municipalities of Sonora State, as illustrated on the map in Fig. 1.

A map of Sonora state highlighting the municipalities of Agua Prieta, Alamos, Caborca, Cucurpe, General Plutarco Elías Calles, Guaymas, Hermosillo, Huásabas, La Colorada, Mazatán, Nácori Chico, Pitiquito, Puerto Peñasco, Santa Cruz, Suaqui Grande, TEpache and Ures. — Figure 1. Municipalities visited in Sonora State. (Map: FES-I UNAM).

During the 2018 and 2019 collection season, teams comprising staff from Kew, UNAM, and USON worked together in the field. The work was intense, the months of June, August and October of 2018 were the best for seed collecting. To maintain safety in these border regions the team were careful to seek cooperation with landowners and other biologists in the field. Although the 2020 health emergency forced many activities to stop, fortunately a team of local collectors located in Guaymas, led by Pablo Carrillo (Fig. 2), worked very hard despite the restrictions and managed to collect many species of interest.

Pablo Carrillo holding a pole pruner to collect seeds from the top of a tree he is standing next to — Figure 2. Biol. Pablo Carrillo collecting *Parkinsonia microphylla* in the town of La Pintada. (Photo: Pablo Carrillo).

Through the efforts of the teams, we have just finished the project with even better than expected results. In total, 244 accessions representing 44 botanical families, 147 genera and 194 species were collected and conserved, of which 49 are endemic species. Three species are included in some category of risk in accordance with the Official Mexican Standard NOM-059 SEMARNAT 2010, 14 are in Appendix II of CITES and 17 are in the Least Concern (LC) category of the IUCN.

All the species collected have biological, ecological, or economic importance, however the following species are especially emblematic:

The Guayacán, Guaiacum coulterii A. Gray, a native tree of the thorny scrub of Sonora, has medicinal properties and its wood is useful for construction as well as being very beautiful as an ornamental plant and a source of food for different species of pollinators. It is classified as threatened in Mexico and vulnerable internationally (Fig. 3 & 4).

Figure 3. Flower of Guayacán, Guaiacum coulterii. (Photo: Jesús Sánchez).

Figure 4. Fruit of Guayacán, Guaiacum coulterii. (Photo: Jesús Sánchez).
The Cabeza de viejo (‘Old Man's Head’), Lophocereus schottii (Engelm.) Britton & Rose, is a columnar cactus which has medicinal properties, found in Sonora’s thorny scrub and dunes. It is classified as subject to special protection in Mexico.
The Saguaro, Carnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britton & Rose, is perhaps one of the most appreciated species for its beauty in Arizona and Sonora. It has threatened status in Mexico.
A Nopal, an Opuntia spp., collected in the Sierra de Mazatán, is probably a new species for science that is being described by specialists.

In conclusion, the state of Sonora is, without a doubt, a place rich in plant diversity that should continue to be studied and conserved. Much remains to be discovered, collected and conserved in the most remote and inhospitable areas that are unfortunately not very easy to access.

Thanks to this project, valuable information has been created on the flora of the sky islands within Sonora, and knowledge has been developed on how security can be maintained within the area, also on the bi-national distribution of species that are threatened in the United States and little known from Mexico. We acknowledge generous support of John and Catherine Emberson to the Kew Foundation to enable this project to happen.

References

Deyo, N.S., Smith, A., Van Devender, T.R. & Gilbert, E. (2013) Documenting the Biodiversity of the Madrean Archipelago: an analysis of a virtual flora and fauna (pdf).
Yanahan, A.D. & Moore, W. (2018) Impacts of 21^st-century climate change on montane habitat in the Madrean Sky Island Archipelago. Diversity and Distributions. 25: 1625-1638. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12965

Over the last month, staff at the South Australian Seed Conservation Centre have been undertaking several orchid translocations. We translocated 116 plants of Sandhill Greenhood (Pterostylis arenicola) to Torrens Island, with help from Coastal Officer Darren Kennedy to measure and tag plants. Darren will water and help monitor the plants. We also translocated some Bayonet Spider-orchids (Caladenia gladiolata) to a private heritage agreement near Scott Creek Conservation Park (CP). In addition, Jenny and Thai translocated the Two Bristle Greenhood (Pterostylis psammophila) to exclosures in Sandy Creek CP last week, with the help of Kym Smith from the Friends group who helped record, tag and plant the greenhoods in the exclosures. Kym will help monitor this translocated population in the future.

Thai and Kym kneeling down plant orchids — Thai Te and Kym Smith measuring, tagging and planting the endangered *Pterostylis psammophila* at Sandy Creek Conservation Park. (Photo: Dr Jenny Guerin).

In the lab we’ve also isolated fungus for a number of threatened orchid species lately for some symbiotic in-vitro propagation work later this year. We’ve been trialling some methods for some difficult species so we were recently delighted (and relieved) to see some success for black-beaked duck-orchid (Caleana disjuncta). We’re doing further research on the Copper beard-orchid (Calochilus cupreus) at the moment for ‘Green Adelaide’ so we’re hoping for similar success before we take off into the wilds again. The world count got up to nearly 40 plants last year so we’re hoping to augment this with propagated plants…and find more populations.

Magnified image showing the tear drop shaped seed of Caleana disjuncta with fungal hyphae protruding — Black-beak duck orchid (*Caleana disjuncta*) protocorm on oatmeal agar media. (Photo: Dan Duaval, SASCC).

On the 27^th August, we put on a display at Adelaide Botanic Garden of some of the endangered orchids (12+ species) we’re currently propagating for the ‘Back from the Brink’ project. This was a good opportunity for landholders, volunteers, partners and sponsors to see some of these interesting orchids in flower.

Kolkhuri jonjoli, Staphylea colchica Steven

Ian Willey (RBG Kew)

Staphylea colchica is native to the Caucasus region where it is known commonly as kolkhuri jonjoli (კოლხური ჯონჯოლი Georg.), Colchis Bladdernut, Caucasian Bladdernut, Jonjol or the Jonjoli tree. Staphylea colchica is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing up to 4 metres in height with three or five ovate leaflets with finely toothed margins. In spring its small, white, fragrant bell-shaped flowers are borne on racemes and develop into greenish-white bladder-like papery fruits containing orange seeds (hence its name “bladdernut tree” in English). The flowering shoots with buds of ‘Jonjoli trees’ are edible and are pickled by fermenting in brine to produce Jonjoli, a revered delicacy in the Caucasus, and in Georgia are a common feature of the traditional feast “Supra”.

People from across the Caucasus region will have eaten Jonjoli, and an export market exists in countries with a significant Caucasian diaspora. S. colchica’s cultural value is both a blessing and a curse. Jonjoli occupies a special place in the region’s cultural identity with the tree recognisable and cherished by many. However, wild populations are threatened by the over collecting of reproductive parts for culinary purposes. Harvesting the flowering shoots and buds limits the plants’ ability to reproduce from seed, further decreasing the viability of source populations. Additionally, S. colchica distribution is severely fragmented across its native range, and the number of individual plants per population is low. A preliminary assessment in 2005 reports that distribution in the Caucasus has reduced by 50%, but a full global IUCN Red List assessment remains incomplete, and more field data is needed to establish a reliable baseline. Taxonomic studies are needed to validate species status and more research is needed to understand threats to the species and the true rate of decline.

Two ex situ seed collections of S. colchica are banked in Georgia and duplicated to the MSB. These collections are a key component of efforts to protect this species and seeds can be made available for use dependant on prior consent from partner institutions. However, S. colchica requires greater protection in situ. Overharvesting and land-use change are very real threats but by promoting sustainable harvesting and engaging communities, as was done in the Darwin Initiative-funded Enhancing rural Caucasian livelihoods through fruit and nut conservation, this culturally significant plant can be protected.

More information on other species conserved through the project can be found in the project booklet (pdf).

A cluster of white flowers and buds — The flowers and buds of the Jonjoli tree. (Photo: National Botanic Garden, Georgia).

A group of people standing in a circle listening to a member of the British Georgian Society in front of a Jonjoli tree — The Georgian Ambassador to the UK, Her Excellency Ms Sophie Katsarava, with the British Georgian Society presenting the cultural importance of Jonjoli whilst standing in front of *Staphylea colchica* at Kew Gardens, July 2020 (Photo: I. Willey).

A fond farewell to Janet Terry

Three people stood holding a framed certificate infront of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. — Janet (centre) as part of the MSB team delivering seeds to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault on behalf of The Prince of Wales. (Photo: Ahmed Amri).

Janet holding a small glass vial containing a seed — Janet holding the billionth seed to be banked at the MSB. (Photo: Paul Little).

Circa 1984, when Janet began a Saturday job working in the restaurant at Wakehurst, she could not have envisaged the 3-decade long career which would follow, when she would go on to travel the world and meet, train, and collect with “so many of our wonderful partners” and “see so many strange and unique seeds and know we have them safely stored”.

When an opportunity arose with the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR, now The Crop Trust) which was running a seed handling unit at Wakehurst, Janet applied for the job as “it sounded interesting!”. Teams went out in the field (predominantly Africa) to collect cultivars and specimens of all the major crops. These got sent back to Janet, who had to sort and distribute them to the crop gene banks which were working on them. In 1990 a seed processing job came up with Kew and Janet moved to work for Kew. Work started on setting standards for collecting and storing seeds. As Janet says, these standards remain largely unchanged today – “keep it dry, keep it cool and it will live longer”.

We asked Janet to reflect on her incredible journey:

What will you miss most about working at the MSB? The people – definitely! Especially the contact with counterparts in equivalent positions around the world, who we can share ideas and experiences with.

What's the favourite species you have handled? The grapple - Harpagophytum. We collected them in Botswana. They were quite challenging to collect and even more so to clean!

What's your first memory of working here? That the Seedbank was in the Mansion – Lady Price’s bedroom was the lab and Sir Henry Price’s bathroom was the x-ray room. The stark contrast of working in an Elizabethan mansion whilst concentrating on cutting edge work! There was a large computer which took up a whole room in the Orchard building. In those early days the field data sheets were loaded onto this huge computer, so from the outset the data has been stored digitally.

What advice would you give to somebody about how to clean a collection? Slowly and carefully!

How do you see seed processing changing in the future? Funding for ‘business as usual’ processing is difficult. People love to fund new and exciting projects, but we need to be able to sustain the day-to-day processing, otherwise we may end up without processing roles and just dry and store seed at -20°C. Without viability testing, we cannot distribute the seed. This highly skilled work by practical applied scientists needs to be supported. I wish their skills were valued more highly. It’s also learning from others – the partnership, collaboration and knowledge that is the MSB’s strength.

If you hadn't worked here, what else might you have liked to do? When I worked for IBPGR, I went to a conference at their headquarters in Rome and a network contact from Indonesia offered me a job working with Orangutans. I was very tempted - things could have been very different!

What are you planning to do in your retirement? Nothing at first - that’s the point! Then I’ll probably get a part time job, working outdoors.

If you could be one plant, what would it be and why? A Welwitschia, as it’s slow growing and they live for an awfully long time. I would sit and watch the world go by!

A close up image of a woody seed pod with several stalks protuding with hooks on — A *Harpagophytum* fruit. (Photo: Elly Vaes, RBG Kew).

A single Welwitschia plant in the desert — *Welwitschia mirabilis*. (Photo: Andrew McRobb).

Somehow, we can’t imagine Janet letting the grass grow under her feet for very long! Thank you to Janet for sharing her thoughts and memories with us.

What are the new requirements for sending plant material to the MSB?

Due to the UK leaving the European Union, there have been changes to Plant Health rules for shipping plant material to the UK.

All seed collections coming into the MSB from outside the UK now need to come with a phytosanitary certificate issued by the relevant authority in the exporting country. A phytosanitary certificate is an official document declaring that plants and plant material are free from pests and diseases. If seed collections arrive with this documentation, then none of the collections are classed as quarantine and the seeds and plant material will be processed as normal. This applies to wild collected and commercial seeds and plant material. The processing and long-term storage of the collections will be no different.

If a phytosanitary certificate cannot be obtained, then material will need to come in with a Letter of Authority (LoA) from the UK Plant Health Service, which can be obtained from the MSBP Conservation Coordinator for your region. However, any material coming in under the LoA will be treated as 'quarantine' upon arrival and restrictions will be placed on the future use of these collections.

As usual, before seed collections are dispatched to the MSB, species lists should be sent to the Seed Collections Manager who will check the list for any prohibited species and CITES-listed species (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).

Copies of all documents should be attached to the outside and also put inside the shipping box. Please also send the airwaybill (AWB) number and copies of the documents to the Seed Collections Manager, so the consignment can be tracked.

A desk with a row of paperwork, a row of seed packets and a set of herbarium specimens partially wrapped in newspaper on — Preparing the paperwork, seeds and herbarium specimens for shipment. (Photo: RBG Kew).

Recent publications from across the MSBP:

Australian Network for Plant Conservation (2021) Florabank Guidelines best practice guidelines for native seed collection and use. 2nd Edition.
Faruk, A., Willey, I., Darchidze, T., Mikatadze-Pantsulaia, T., Barblishvili, T., Nersesyan, A. & Papikyan, A. (2021) Enhancing rural Caucasian livelihoods through fruit and nut conservation (pdf). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Ibrahimova, A.G., Gasimova, K.H., Breman, E., Faruk, A., Willey, I. & Ali-zade, V.M. (2020) Morphological characteristics of seed of the endangered species of Diospyros lotus (Ebenaceae) in Azerbaijan. Plant & Fungal Research. 3: 52-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.29228/plantfungalres.77
Margreiter, V., Walde, J. & Erschbamer, B. (2021) Competition-free gaps are essential for the germination and recruitment of alpine species along an elevation gradient in the European Alps. Alpine Botany. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00035-021-00264-9
Müller, J.V., Cockel, C.P., Gianella, M. & Guzzon, F. (2021) Treasuring crop wild relative diversity: analysis of success from the seed collecting phase of the 'Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change' project. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-021-01229-x
Newton, R.J., Mackenzie, B.D.E., Lamont, B.B., Gomez-Barreiro, P., Cowling, R.M. & He, T. (2021) Fire-mediated germination syndromes in Leucadendron (Proteaceae) and their functional correlates. Oecologia. 196: 589-604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-021-04947-2

Updates to the field data form

We are currently in the process of updating the field data form to improve its compatibility with the data required for IUCN threat assessments. We expect the update to be ready before the end of December.

E-newsletter

Issue 11: March 2025

Stories from the field and lab

Securing Australia's Rarest Plants: The Critically Endangered Project Bradley Desmond (Australian Seed Bank Partnership)

Collecting Forest Seed in the Northwest Region of Mozambique A. Félix, P. Dique, C. J. Chirinzane Manhiça (Agricultural Research Institute of Mozambique - IIAM) & J. Osborne (RBG Kew)

Across the MSBP

The Value of Seed Conservation Training Xadreque Sitivene João (Agricultural Research Institute of Mozambique - IIAM)

Cotoneaster coriaceus: A Growing Threat to South Africa's Natural Ecosystems H. C. Mafuwane (South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), South Africa)

References

The seeds, the scientists and the seed bank; my own chronicles at the MSB Joel Akio Tamura (RBG Kew Science Research Intern)

The seeds

The scientists

Bottleneck in Restoration: Halfway through the Global Seed Supply and Demand Project Aru Wiecek (RBG Kew Science Research Intern)

References

Species Profile...Arundina graminifolia (D.Don) Hochr.

Conservation of Arundina graminifolia (D.Don) Hochr. in Bogor Botanic Gardens, Indonesia by Elizabeth Handini, Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas & Dian Latifah (Research Center of Applied Botany, National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia)

Synonyms

Introduction

Morphological Characteristics

Habitat and Distribution

Ecological Importance

Seed studies and conservation at Bogor Botanic Garden

Seed Bank Profile...The seed bank of the Faustino Miranda Botanical Garden: a centre of excellence for the conservation of the floristic heritage of Chiapas (Mexico)

By Silvia Bacci (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)

Silvia Bacci (Real Jardín Botánico de Kew)

Seed question of the quarter

What's coming up in the 2025 MSB training calendar?

Latest from the lab

Issue 10: September 2024

Stories from the field and lab

Identification and characterisation of tree species with potentially short-lived seeds Chih-Wei Hsieh (RBG Kew & National Taiwan University), Xia Liu (RBG Kew & Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, China), Anne Visscher & Louise Colville (RBG Kew)

A gap analysis on missing genera in the Sub-Saharan Africa collection of the Millennium Seed Bank Yu-An Chiang (RBG Kew & National Taiwan University), Tim Pearce & Alice Hudson (RBG Kew)

Introduction

Methodology

Results and Conclusion

References

Detailed tables for map data

Lightning in a seed bottle: benefits of plasma treatment on UK native species' germination Remy Wood & Louise Colville (RBG Kew)

Across the MSBP

MedGermDB: A seed germination database for characteristic species of Mediterranean habitats Diana María Cruz-Tejada (University of Pisa), Eduardo Fernández-Pascual (University of Oviedo), Alessio Mo (University of Pisa), Efisio Mattana (RBG Kew) & Angelino Carta (University of Pisa)

An interview with... Alice Livingstone (Research Nursery Lead, Wakehurst, RBG Kew)

If you could be a seed or plant, what would you be and why?

What is your most memorable field trip experience?

How did you get into horticulture?

What is one of the most satisfying moments you've had in your conservation work?

You're involved in lots of different projects, can you give us some examples?

What does a typical day look like for you?

What are you working on now?

What advice would you give to anyone who wants to get involved in horticulture?

What made you apply for your job at Kew?

Species profiles...Abies hickelii Flous & Gaussen

A rocky road to seed collection: the story of Abies hickelii

Español

Un camino áspero para la recolección de semillas: la historia de Abies hickelii

Issue 9: June 2024

Stories from the field and lab

Enhancing conservation of orchid seeds in Armenia Aisyah Faruk (RBG Kew), Daniel Ballesteros (University of Valencia), Astghik Papikyan, Anush Nersesyan, Sona Galstyan & Hripsik Kosyan (Nature Heritage NGO; A. Takhtajan Institute of Botany NAS RA)

Introduction

Fieldwork

Processing and storage

Results

Conclusions

References

UK Tree Seed Collecting: Aspen (Populus tremula) Matthew Jeffery (RBG Kew)

Introduction

Aspen

Planning and collecting

Back in the MSB lab

References

Across the MSBP

Jordan’s Agricultural Research Center recognised for research excellence

25 years of SANBI - RBG Kew collaboration Tim Pearce (RBG Kew) & Victoria Wilman (SANBI)

Seminar looks to the future of medicinal and aromatic plant conservation in Pakistan Shakeel Ahmad (Plant Genetics Resources Institute, Islamabad)

The latest on MSBP seed conservation training Charlotte Lawrence (RBG Kew)

MSBP Training Updates

Insights from our partners - the Partner Questionnaire results

The new Trainer Certification Scheme

Seed Bank Profile...Saving Ghana's Forests: Inside the National Tree Seed Centre's Afforestation and Seed Conservation Projects

by Dr. Joseph Mireku Asomaning (National Tree Seed Centre, CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, Fumesua-Kumasi)

Species profiles...'Cryptocarya R.Br.'